January 2, 2009

Sheep Farm Husbandry - How to Condition Score Sheep

Sheep, body condition, condition scoring, description of method.

By Dr Clive Dalton

In assessing a sheep’s state of health, it’s a great help to know its liveweight. But this does not tell you it’s “condition” which is basically how fat or thin (skinny) it is. A heavy sheep could be skinny and a light sheep could be fat - so you need both live weight and condition to get the full story.

Where to feel?
  • Stand at the side of the sheep and use your outstretched hand for the job.
  • Lay your thumb along the backbone – pointing forward and use your fingers to feel the bones at the end of the “short ribs”.
  • This will be easier on short-woolled sheep.

What to feel?
  • In this area the backbone of the sheep (spine) has bones sticking up (vertical processes) and bones sticking out the side (horizontal processes).
  • Both of these are used as the location points for scoring.
  • These bones are covered first by muscles and then by a layer of fat.
  • You have to assess both of these to decide on a score.

The scores used
The scores used go from CS Zero (completely emaciated), through CS 1, CS 2, CS 3, CS 4 to CS 5 (extremely obese). The details are below:

Score details

Score 0
  • Rarely seen as the sheep would be near death. They are unfit to travel and unfit for human consumption. Such sheep would risk prosecution of the owner under the Animal Welfare Act 1999.
  • No muscle can be felt between skin and bone.
Score 1
  • The vertical (spine) and horizontal (lumbar) processes are prominent and sharp.
  • You can easily push your fingers below the horizontals and each process can be clearly felt.
  • The loin muscle is thin (wasted) with no fat cover over it.
  • Such sheep will need urgent preferential treatment.
  • GR measurement is 0-5mm.
Score 2
  • The vertical processes are prominent but smooth.
  • Individual processes can be felt only as corrugations and not deep troughs.
  • The horizontal processes are smooth and rounded, but you can still press your fingers under them.
  • The loin muscle is moderately deep but has little fat cover.
  • GR measurement is 5-8mm.

Score 3
  • The vertical processes are smooth and rounded.
  • You can feel the bone with gentle pressure.
  • The horizontal processes are also smooth and well covered.
  • You’ll need to press fairly hard to feel the end of each one.
  • The loin muscle is full with a moderate fat cover.
  • GR measurement is 9-15mm.

Score 4
  • The vertical processes can only be detected as a line.
  • The ends of the horizontal processes cannot be felt.
  • The loin muscles are full and have a thick cover of fat.
  • GR measurement of 15-20mm.

Score 5
  • You cannot feel the vertical processes even with strong pressure.
  • There’s a dimple in the fat layers where the processes should be.
  • The horizontal processes cannot be detected.
  • The loin muscles are very full and covered with a thick layer of fat.
  • There will also be heavy fat deposits in the rump area.
  • GR measurement of over 21mm (overfat).


Minimal condition score targets
The table below shows some general target CS figures.

Disclaimer This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Injection Techniques

Animal health, disease prevention, injections, methods, techniques, hygiene, safety.

By Dr Clive Dalton & Dr Marjorie Orr


General - hygiene
  • When giving injections always get veterinary advice to make sure the products are appropriate and you know the correct procedure. A loaded syringe can be a dangerous weapon for both you and any helpers. If anyone does get injected, then seek immediate medical help and take the product with you to the doctor.
  • Keep your tetanus vaccinations up to date too.
  • Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to the letter for storage and use of the product.
  • Make sure you take care to dispose of old syringes, needles and packaging in a safe place. Needles are especially dangerous and should really go into a special “sharps” rubbish container.
  • Various pathogenic bacteria are present on the surface of the skin and these may produce infection if injected with the medication.
  • Therefore; when time allows or for valuable animals, or if the environment is very dirty, take every care to clean and disinfect the skin before injecting.
  • If the injection is made on the side of the neck and the site is covered by wool, close clipping of the skin is ideal, but careful separation of the fleece and scrubbing the skin with a disinfectant may be possible.
  • There are lots of disinfection preparations on the market which are satisfactory. Tincture of iodine is satisfactory and is better than methylated spirits which though commonly used, is not effective as a disinfectant.
  • A fresh swab of disinfectant should be used for each animal.
  • Single syringes are mainly disposable these days but if a multiple-injection gun is used it must be disinfected when practical.
  • The gun, including all parts coming in contact with the drug or the product to be injected, should be placed in a large container such as a pressure cooker or saucepan and thoroughly boiled with the lid on.
  • Bringing to the boil will kill all normal bacteria and boiling for 15 minutes will ensure the destruction of most bacterial spores.
  • After boiling, the saucepan or container should be tipped sideways with the lid on so that the water drains out (like pouring off potatoes).
  • With all the water out, the syringe and the plunger may be picked up by external parts only and carefully fitted together without touching any part which will contact the material injected. Wash and dry your hands before picking up and assembling the injection equipment.
  • Equipment that cannot be boiled cannot be adequately disinfected. The best you can do is to soak it in a solution of disinfectant. Pour this off and then flush with cold boiled water. The latter should have been boiled in a lidded container and allowed to cool with the lid on.
  • If they are not washed through thoroughly with water, injecting guns and syringes may contain some of the disinfectant, and this may inactivate the vaccine, or cause irritation and damage of the tissues when injected.
  • To remove vaccine or other medication from the bottle in a clean manner, swab the neck and stopper of the bottle with a solution of suitable disinfectant. If sealed with a rubber or plastic seal, the material may be withdrawn using a syringe and two needles (one needle to allow air in as the vaccine is sucked out).
  • On large farms, the above comments may be hopelessly impractical. For example, if you have to vaccinate 500 ewes with 5-in-one vaccine, you will not have time to disinfect the skin of each sheep.
  • You may simply proceed down the race injecting each sheep in a clean part of the neck, taking care to keep your hands clean (and washing them if they become dirty), and taking care to keep the needle clean (and replacing it if it becomes dirty).
  • Generally, use the smallest needle that is suitable, i.e. the needle with the narrowest bore, such as a 19-gauge needle. In tough-skinned animals a stouter needle may be necessary, e.g. a 16-gauge.
Subcutaneous injection (under the skin)
  • This is the easiest and quickest form of injection, and it is used for many vaccines and drugs that are non-irritant and are readily absorbed.
  • With stock held in a race to give a subcutaneous injection, pull up a handful of skin to make a “tent” and slide the needle into the base of the tent under the skin and press the plunger.
  • Check when doing this to make sure the jet from the syringe is not coming out the other side of the tent because you’ve pushed the needle too far through.
  • With irritant materials as some vaccines can be, a reaction may result producing a lump. This may blemish the carcase when the animal is killed and dressed. In such cases, make the injection at the top and to one side of the neck. Any lump that occurs here can be trimmed off when the carcase is dressed.
Intramuscular injection (into the muscle)
  • Many drugs have to be injected deep into the muscles to give more rapid absorption and may lead to less irritation.
  • Where possible the intramuscular injection should be given deep into the muscles of the neck rather than into the big muscle mass of a hind quarter. The reason is that the rear end is where the top-priced meat is on the carcass, and is the last place you want to cause an abscess in the carcase to be found when the sheep is killed or worse still – not found until it reaches the consumer!
  • When injecting into the neck the sheep can see you coming and often moves, whereas injecting in the rump there is less chance of it being aware of what is going on till afterwards. If the sheep feels pain with the initial jab or when the product is being forced down the syringe, watch for the sheep moving and the needle coming out.
  • It is important that the injection is not put into subcutaneous fat and actually hits muscle. That’s why it needs to go in deep.
  • Just before pressing the syringe plunger; withdraw it a little and if has inadvertently gone into a blood vessel, blood will show in the barrel of the syringe. If this happens the needle must be moved to a new site so that the injection is intramuscular and not intravenous.
  • If a spore of some Clostridial organism such as tetanus, blackleg, black disease or malignant oedema, is lying harmlessly in the muscle, the disturbance created by the injection may cause it to germinate leading to fatal disease. This is a good reason for keeping Clostridial vaccinations up-to-date.
Intravenous injection (into the vein)
  • Avoid giving intravenous injections (into the vein) and leave them to your veterinarian as finding a vein and injecting into to it can be tricky, especially on a sheep with long wool.
  • You can do intravenous injections under veterinary supervision and where you will have to demonstrate to your veterinarian that you are competent to carry out the task.
  • Intravenous injections are generally given into the jugular vein in the neck and it can be tricky to find. The sheep should be well restrained when locating the vein and when injecting.
  • f the vein is missed, there can be serious bleeding under the skin, and accidental injection of many medications around the vein instead of into it can cause a very nasty reaction, sometimes with sloughing of the skin.
  • There are many medications that could kill or do serious damage if injected into a vein and run in too quickly.
  • For example, when injecting calcium solutions intravenously, a veterinarian may listen to the heartbeat to gauge the rate of injection by the response of the heart. Without this, sudden deaths may occur.
  • For large volumes e.g. for milk fever or grass staggers, injections come in bottles or sachets with a long rubber tube attached to the needle so that the solution is gravity fed and the rate must be controlled by the height at which you hold the container.
  • Because the rapid injection of any medication into a vein can be lethal, all intravenous injections are given very slowly. The sheep must also be well restrained.
Intramammary injection (into the udder)
  • In sheep, antibiotics for mastitis are normally given intramuscularly but you may need to give an Intramammary injection to get antibiotics into the udder via the teat canal.
  • These are really “infusions” using the long neck on the tube rather than a needle to deliver the treatment.
  • Remember the teat sphincter muscle that opens into the teat canal are very delicate structures and the teat is a very sensitive part of the sheep so work gently and with care.
  • A sheep’s teat canal is much smaller and more delicate than that of a cow.
  • After the full tube has been emptied into the teat, it’s no longer recommended to hold the teat end and massage the product up into the udder.
  • It is also important to clean the end of the teat with meths before you insert the tube. Use cotton wool swabs and keep using them until they show no more dirt from the teat end. This may take quite a few rubs. If you don’t clean the teat end - all you’ll do is to push dirt and bugs into the teat and cause more problems.
Filling a syringe
  • If you have to draw liquid from a new bottle of product into a syringe, it’s often hard to suck out because there is no air in the new bottle or container.
  • All you need do is to draw into the syringe the amount of air that will be replaced by the injection, and inject this air into the bottle through the rubber cap.
  • This will put enough air into the bottle and allow you to fill the syringe.
  • You may have to do this every now and again if you find it hard to fill the syringe.
  • Or you can put another needle in the cap of the container to act as an air entry while you are drawing product out.
  • Try to keep everything as clean as possible and free from contamination.
Disclaimer
This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Castration and Tail Docking


Castration, tail docking, age, methods, welfare issues

By Dr Clive Dalton

These procedures have been carried out for centuries, castration to reduce the number of males on the farm, and docking tails to avoid the growth of dags that attract blowflies. So the term “docking” for both these operations, done at the same time.

Both involve animal welfare issues as they are done by farmers (and not by veterinarians), and no anaesthetics are used

Castration
At what age?
  • Ram lambs grow much faster and are leaner than castrates (wethers) and so make more money in the meat trade. So don’t castrate them if you don’t need to and if you have a good market for them.
  • On large farms the risks of stray ram lambs disappearing and turning up again to mate ewes before they are discovered is a real one, so castrating all unwanted males is sound management.
  • It’s recommended that castration should be done after maternal bonding has been completed (i.e. 12-24 hours) and before 6 weeks of age.
  • Under current law it is an offence to castrate any sheep over 9 months old unless it is done by a veterinarian who will use some form of anaesthetic.
Methods
Rubber rings
  • Using rubber rings is the most humane method.
  • A ring is stretched with special pliers and placed around the neck of the scrotum.
  • The rule is simple – make sure that before the ring is released that both testicles are below the ring and the rudimentary teats are above it.
  • Hold the testicles down with your free hand in the scrotum while you release the ring to make sure they don’t escape back above the ring.
  • It’s best to do the lambs between 7-10 days old.
  • Lambs feel pain as judged by them lying down and kicking from 5-15 minutes but then they show no more obvious distress.
Two nicely docked lambs. Tails will drop off in about 10 days. They are marked on the tail to help check on mothering up
Knife
  • This used to be the standard method before rubber rings were invented.
  • It is not recommended now because it’s slow and the risks of infection, bleeding from the wound, hernias and blowfly attack is very possible.
  • The bottom of the scrotum is cut with a sharp knife or scalpel and the testicles pulled out or “drawn”.
  • They are slippery and hard to hold and pull out. Old shepherds used to draw them with their teeth!
  • Research has shown it is much more painful than the rubber ring method.
  • Surgical castration should only be done by a veterinarian using pain control.

Emasculator pliers
  • These pliers (called the Burdizzo emasculatome) crush the spermatic cords making the ram infertile.
  • They are slow and clumsy and are not used much now.
  • There is always doubt about the result too as you cannot see the end result of the action.
The cryptorchid procedure
  • This is also called the “short scrotum method” and is where a rubber ring is put around the scrotum so it will eventually drop off, leaving the testicles up against the body wall.
  • The higher temperature this creates makes the sperm infertile while the ram gets the growth benefit of the male hormones while being infertile.
  • Be warned though – an odd cryptorchid may not be completely infertile and may be able to get females pregnant.

Tail docking
At what age?
  • The minimum standard says tail docking must only be done if there is a significant risk of faecal or urine contamination, or blowfly strike that will lead to poor hygiene and health. So if you cannot justify it – then don’t do it.
  • Without pain relief - dock lambs as young as possible, and not older than 6 months of age.
  • Beyond 6 months you must use pain relief which may mean the costs of a veterinarian.
  • Generally docking should be done after maternal bonding has been completed (i.e. 12-24 hours). But some farmers dock with rubber rings when tagging the lambs and claim it does not affect bonding.

What length to leave the dock?


  • The tail dock (the bit left) should be long enough to wag!
  • A good guide is that the dock should cover the vulva of a ewe lamb and be the equivalent length in males down to the bald bit on the underside of the tail. This is clearly stated in the MAF Sheep Code of Practice.
  • If the lamb is able to raise it’s dock when defaecating, it lifts the supporting tissue around the anus (the caudal folds) so can direct any diarrhoea which is common on New Zealand pastures away from the body.
  • If the dock is too short, the dung runs down its legs and into it’s crutch.
  • Leave the tail on any ram lamb that you cannot locate the testicles – it’s a good visual sign when drafting. It’s a ‘long tailer” and hence a cull.
This ram's tail dock is far too short, and you can see
the damage done to the tail ligaments. The
MAF Sheep Code of Welfare has been ignored

Methods
Rubber rings
  • Use rubber rings when lambs are 7-10 days old, and the tail should drop off 10-14 days later.
  • Don’t cut the tail off below the ring as the blood can attract blowflies.
  • Check the scar on the tail stump incase it has gone septic and attracts blowflies. This does not often happen.
Cauterisation
  • Here a gas-heated iron is used to both cut and cauterise the tail in one action.
  • Correct pressure on the iron is important to make sure the stump has been cauterised during the cutting action. A steady slow action is needed.
  • You soon learn to get it right if you have to hold a bleeding tail stump between your fingers, and cauterise it with the hot iron while the lamb is kicking with the pain!
  • Check that no docks are bleeding before returning lambs to their mothers. Any that are bleeding will have to be re cauterised.
  • Blowfly repellant can be applied to the dock if flystrike is a problem.
  • Don’t dip the lamb’s backside in a drum of sheep dip as the fluid rapidly becomes contaminated with blood and dung over time and does more harm than good.
Knife
  • This was the old method but has been shown to be much more painful than rubber rings and it should not be used.
  • The blood from newly-cut tail docks only attracts blowflies.
General comments on docking


  • Only dock lambs on dry days and try to keep the docking area clean. This is easy when lambs are docked in the paddocks they were born in, but if done in the regular sheep yards is often more difficult.
  • Keep the equipment clean by occasionally washing with disinfectant.
  • Operators should also try to keep their hands and overalls clean
Disclaimer
This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Mulesing

Mulesing, welfare issues, New Zealand minimal standards, blowfly, alternatives

By Dr Clive Dalton

Background
The American breeders who put the wrinkles on the Merino more than 100 years ago to grow more wool could have had little idea about what suffering they would cause the sheep, or the public issue it has turned out to be. Mulesing, first described by J.H.W. Mules in Australia in the 1930s looked like a solution, and is still used in parts of Australia and on a small but unknown proportion of New Zealand Merinos.

Few could have predicted the massive international backlash to mulesing by people who want a guarantee that the garments they buy are from wool from sheep that have not been mulesed. Australia plans to ban the practice by 2010 and New Zealand Merino farmers are expected to follow this programme.

What happens?
Technically, to mules a sheep the Australian way you take a pair of short-bladed hand shears, pull the woolled skin up and cut off a slice on either side of the perineum which is the bare skin under the tail. A slice is also taken from each side of the docked tail. Farmers can do it themselves, and it does not need to be done under veterinary supervision or with anaesthetic. When the wound heals it grows skin with no wool so faeces and urine contamination are avoided – and so are the blowflies. The technique used in New Zealand is a less-severe and is a modified version of that used in Australia.

To avoid creating an open wound, a clip has been developed in Australia which is about 10cm long and is clipped on to the folds around the sheep’s anus that would normally be cut off. The clip cuts the blood supply and the flap withers and falls off within a few days, leaving a bare area and a thin scar line. It is claimed to be much less stressful than the cutting the folds off.

Why is it allowed?
So if it’s so gruesome an operation, why is it allowed? The rationale is that the pain and suffering of mulesing is a lot less than the agony of a slow death from being eaten alive by blowfly maggots. This case only applies to Merino sheep that graze the inaccessible high country maybe until they are 7-years-old or older and regular checking and treatment for blowfly attack is not possible.

NZ Recommendations and minimal standards
So whether you are for or against mulesing, the practice is currently legal in New Zealand but with some very specific minimal standards under the Sheep Code of Welfare. Here they are. Note that the word “must” is a legal requirement and a “should” is a recommendation:

  • Non-surgical (i.e. chemical) mulesing must not be carried out.
  • Surgical mulesing must not be carried out unless all of the following conditions are met:
  • The sheep are Merino or Merino-dominant types.
  • The sheep are destined to be farmed in extensive farming systems where there is a high risk of fly strike.
  • It is probable that no other flystrike preventive measure or combination of measures is likely to be effective.
  • The process is carried out by competent operators using clean sharp mulesing shears.
  • No more skin is removed than is necessary.
  • Sheep should be done before they are 12 weeks old.
  • Antiseptic should be applied to the wounds and insect repellant around them to prevent infections after the surgery.
The future for mulesing
  • Even with all these conditions, mulesing may be carried out only until practical and effective non-surgical methods of flystrike control become available. For the sake of the sheep, let’s hope this is soon!
  • With so much recent negative international publicity against the practice, it would pay anyone still doing it to review their farming practice and give mulesing away for the sake of our New Zealand clean, green and humane image.
Disclaimer
This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Euthanasia (Slaughter)

How to euthanise sheep, slaughter without pain, methods, correct shooting, throat cutting, blow to head, operator safety

By Dr Clive Dalton

If you have to euthanise (kill) a sheep of any age in New Zealand, it’s important to study the MAF Code of Animal Welfare No. 19 on “Emergency slaughter of farm livestock” because the process can be very dangerous for the operator, and you may end up being prosecuted for causing unnecessary pain and suffering to the animal. Here are the options:

Shooting
  • Captive bolt devices are available without the need of a firearms license. The modern ones are a cylinder and don’t look like a pistol – which these days is a very wise move, as someone seeing you could call the Armed Offenders’ Squad. They are available from suppliers of veterinary equipment.
  • Use the correct calibre blank cartridge for the size of the animal and hold it on the sheep’s head before firing. If in doubt use a heavier calibre blank.
  • Firearms: For which a license is needed. With a shotgun or 0.22 rifle, hold the weapon at least 10-25 cm from the head when firing to avoid blowback.
  • For polled sheep: the correct site for the shot is in the midline on the highest point of the head, aiming straight down towards the angle of the jaw ( see diagram below)
  • For horned sheep: select a site in the middle of the head just behind the bony ridge between the horns aiming at the back of the throat. NOTE: if you use this position, it’s important to bleed the sheep promptly as they have been known to regain consciousness.
  • Immediately after an animal has been shot, its throat should be cut to ensure it has fully bled and is dead.
Position on the head to aim
The diagram below shows the best position to shoot a polled ewe and a horned ram.


Throat cutting
  • After shooting this is the next best method to kill a sheep.
  • It’s been the traditional way to kill a sheep for home kill or dog tucker and for some religions.
  • The most humane method is to cut the throat without breaking the neck. Breaking the neck only causes additional trauma before the animal has lost consciousness.
  • The knife used should be very sharp and the blade at least 15cm long.
  • Restrain the sheep gently but firmly, standing or lying on it’s left side with its chin in your left hand (vice versa if left handed), to extend the neck.
  • Part the wool over the throat just behind the angle of the jaw. Make a swift firm cut across the upper part of the neck, severing both main (carotid) arteries and both main (jugular) veins. The windpipe (trachea) and gullet (oesophagus) will also be severed.
  • The sheep will lose consciousness in 3-8 seconds and should be held firmly until then. A huge amount of blood will be seen pumping from the arteries, so be warned if you don’t like the sight of blood!
  • The signs of death (as opposed to unconsciousness) are lack of pulse and breathing, the eye pupils widely distended, and lack of blinking reflex when the surface of the eye is touched.
  • Take great care as many cut legs result from killing sheep when the knife slips.
Blow to the head
  • This should be a last resort if a firearm or knife is not available.
  • The sheep should be firmly restrained and then hit with a blunt instrument with sufficient force to break the skull and cause physical damage to the brain and cause rapid death.
  • A soft blow will only stun the sheep so make sure you hit it hard enough to causes brain damage at the same time.
  • The best weapon to use for a sheep is a heavy hammer or the back of a small axe (hatchet).
  • Hit the sheep in the same spot described above for the captive bolt.
  • Cut the sheep’s throat immediately after stunning it.

Disclaimer
This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Fencing for sheep

Fencing basics, fence types, fencing laws, problems, trouble shooting, check lists, power fencing, safety, wire spacings, netting, scrim.

By Dr Clive Dalton

Making sure you can find sheep where you left them has been a challenge for shepherds since domestication. Sheep are the classical “follower” species and if one finds an escape route – the whole flock will follow it in no time. Some sheep are born to be escapologists and they can lead to terrible disasters on steep hill country when one finds a hole in the fence in a hollow, and the rest of the mob push up behind it waiting their turn to follow ending up in a massive smother. Hundreds of sheep can easily die in these events in minutes. The solution for the persistent escaper is the butchers! So having good fences in the correct locations is the first priority of sheep farming.


Fencing law - Fencing Act 1978
Rural fence specifications


Seven or 8 wire Fence
A substantial wire fence, having 7 or 8 wires properly strained, with up to 2 of these wires as galvanised barbed wire, or with 1 galvanised barbed wire and a top rail; barbed wires to be placed in a position agreed upon by the persons interested, or to be omitted if those persons agree; the posts to be of durable timber, metal, or reinforced concrete, and not more than 5m apart, and securely rammed and, in hollows or where subject to lifting through the strain of the wire, to be securely footed, or stayed with wire; the battens (droppers) to be affixed to the wires and of durable timber, metal or plastic, evenly spaced, and not fewer than 3 between posts; the wires to be galvanised and of 2.5mm high tensile steel or 4mm steel or its equivalent; the bottom wire to be not more than 125mm from the ground, the next 3 wires to be not more than 125mm apart; and the top wire or rail to be not less than 1m from the ground.

Nine or 10 wire Fence
A substantial wire fence having 9 or 10 wires properly strained, with or without battens (droppers) or lacing affixed to the wires between the posts or standards; the posts or standards to be durable timber, metal, or reinforced concrete, well and substantially erected, and not more than 5m apart, the top wire not to be less than 1m from the ground surface, the wires to be galvanised, and of 2.5mm high tensile steel or 4mm steel, or its equivalent, the space between the ground and the bottom wire not to exceed 100mm, the bottom 4 wires to be not more than 130mm apart.

Prefabricated (Netting) Fence
A substantial wire netting fence properly strained of a minimum height of 1m; the netting to have at east 7 horizontal wires, and, if necessary, extra wires above or below the netting, one of which may be a galvanised barb wire, all other wires to be galvanised in either 2.5mm high tensile steel or 4mm steel, or its equivalent; the vertical stays of the netting to be galvanised wire, and not more than 305mm apart. Posts or standards to be not more than 5m apart and of durable timber, metal or reinforced concrete, additional battens (droppers) may be installed between the posts if both parties agree; the overall fence to be well and substantially erected.


Fence types


NZ Standard boundary fence
  • This is the basic legal boundary fence required under the law (The Fencing Act 1978) in New Zealand.
  • It is the best stock-proof fence there is but it’s the most expensive.
  • It has got to be a seven-wire, fully-battened fence, and is the perfect sheep fence if well erected.
  • It usually has posts 5 m apart with 5 battens equally spaced between them.
  • The gaps between the seven wires from ground level to top are at intervals of 120mm, 120mm, 130mm, 150mm, 170mm, 200mm and 250mm.
  • So the “escape holes” at sheep height along the bottom are about 400mm long between the battens and either 130mm or 150mm high and these are great sheep stoppers.
  • Goats dig holes at the base of fences that sheep will go through so if you have goats (feral or farmed) on sheep farms, then a hot wire on an outrigger along the bottom is a good investment (see later).
Netting fencing
  • Using wire netting fencing is an easy solution to keep sheep of all sizes at home and it’s quick to erect.
  • It works best on flat country and is not suitable for the ups and downs of hill country.
  • It’s notorious for ripping tags out of sheeps’ ears – but maybe the sheep are to blame and not the fence!
  • The rectangular gaps in the netting are either 150mm or 300mm long and going up from ground level they are 100mm, 100mm, 100mm, 120mm, 140mm, 150mm, and 200mm. So it’s very stock proof for ewes and small lambs.
  • You will need a wire along the top of the netting too and if you run cattle, put a hot wire along the top and never a barbed one.
  • Barbed wire should be banned for the benefit of humans, farm dogs and stock of all species.
Electric or power fencing
This is a very cost-effective solution to keeping in sheep, and New Zealand has led the world in its development. It can be used as a stand-alone power fence, or be added on to a standard fence. If your standard fence is in bad repair and cash is short, adding a hot wire to it is a great way to get a few more years out of it.

Advantages of power fencing
  • Low cost.
  • Easy to construct with light materials. It’s much easier to get power fencing materials out to the back of a farm than with standard fencing.
  • It lasts a long time as there’s minimal stock pressure on it.
  • It’s easy to use for subdivision of paddocks improving grazing control.
  • It’s easy to modify to suit the stock and if you find it’s in the wrong place, it’s easy to shift.
  • It does not damage stock and if there is a disaster like a smother, stock in panic will easily be forced through it without injury.
  • It can be aesthetically more acceptable than a permanent fully battened fence.

How does a power fence work?
It’s important, especially with sheep that carry their own wool insulation, that you understand how a power fence works to get the most out of it.
  • A power unit or energiser puts out current along the fence. The energizer can be fed from the mains supply, from a battery or a solar unit.
  • The critical part of the fence is the earth peg or pegs. They acts like an aerial and collects electrons from the ground.
  • If you have a big energiser than you need a big earth.
  • The earth rule is to count 1 2 3 3. This says:
  • Have ONE continuous wire from power source to earth pegs. The wire needs to be attached with nuts and bolts and not just twisted.
  • Use ground pegs TWO metres long and knock them all the way into the ground.
  • Have THREE ground pegs.
  • Knock the pegs in THREE metres apart, if possible in a wet area.
  • The energiser should be earthed at least 10m away form telephone cables and other electrical earths including water pipes.
  • When the sheep out in the paddock or away at the back of the farm touches the wire, the current goes through the sheep (delivering the shock) and back to the earth peg. The sheep in effect completes the circuit and if it doesn’t then there is no shock.
  • Modern energizers will power up to 360 km of fence and at long distances, it’s important to run an earth wire along the fence to help the current find the earth contact easier.

Are power fences safe?
  • It’s a relevant question, as modern energisers get bigger to power longer distances of fence to be more cost effective. Some will now power over 300km of fence. New Zealand manufacturers defend the safety of their units.
  • The shock is normally around 4000 volts but the pulse only lasts for 0.0003 seconds which is more than enough to get a response from animal or human!
  • There have been cases of new-born and very wet lambs and calves being killed from entanglement with a hot wire and receiving constant shocks for a very long period.
  • The pulse is very low amps and it’s amps that cause injury.
  • But saying that, a long continuous series of pulses will kill wet newborn lambs (and calves) if they stumble their way and get trapped on a hot wire.
  • Hot wires are also lethal to hedgehogs. Their spines hit the wire and they curl up and die. They don’t recoil back from the first shock!
  • Also be aware about a bit of physics called “impedance”. This is the build up of current at the end of a very long power fence. So if you are at the very back of a hill country farm, you (or the dog) may find the fence to be a bit more than the expected 4000 volts. The dog will certainly remember the experience longer than you will!
  • If the power at the end of the fence exceeds 4,000 volts, then something needs fixing

Poor fence performance checklist
Client surveys by manufacturers of power fencing have found that 40% of fences are not working to their full capacity for a number of common faults leading to low voltage. Here they are so you can check your fence:
  • Poor earth. This is top of the list and most people don’t know because they are scared to grab the fence, and they don’t invest in a voltmeter to check the power and find out where the problem is. Keep checking the earth pegs and soaking them with water frequently if they are not in a wet area.
  • Bad or corroded connections.
  • Poor knots in wire. Don’t use reef knots; use a knot with plenty of twists to make good contact, or use the modern connections where the end of the wires lie parallel and are clinched together.
  • Long lengths of wire that is too thin – restricting the power flow.
  • Long distances of single-wire fence (again with poor earth).
  • Rusty wire which can be a problem with salty air.
  • Animals standing on dry areas (insulated) and only touching live wires and no earth wire on the fence.
  • Leakage through poor insulation. Old plastic insulators that need replacing.
  • Leakage through excess vegetation contacting the fence. Spray the area under the fence.
  • Avoid running fences within 10m of telephone lines. Many phone lines are buried along the side of the road and may be directly under your power fence.

Wire spacings on power fences for sheep

Three-wire fences
  • This is a low fence suitable only for internal fencing on small farms with very quiet sheep that respect a power fence.
  • Posts can be up to 10m apart.
  • Wire spacings from the ground upwards can be 200mm, 300mm, 350mm.
  • The top wire can be set up to take current but is always kept switched off to allow safe climbing by people.
  • The power in the lower two wires will keep the sheep in unless they get really short of feed or are panicked. You can always power the top wire if needed.
  • This fence could be used if you run cattle as well as sheep, but another wire on the fence would be better for cattle (see below).
  • It’s very low cost and low maintenance.

Four-wire fences
  • This is suitable for internal fencing for sheep and cattle.
  • Spacings between wires from the ground upwards can be 180mm, 150mm, 225mm and 350mm.
  • Posts can be up to 10m apart.
  • The first and third wires can be dead and the second and fourth hot.
  • Or use spacings from the ground upwards of 160mm, 190mm, 250mm, 300mm.
  • Alternative wires can be hot or you can make it a standard practice that all top wires are prepared to take power but are kept switched off for ease of climbing over.
  • Power the top wire if you have cattle.
  • Some farmers have the bottom wire dead as it is the one most easily shorted by herbage and it allows safe passage for hedgehogs.
Five-wire fences
  • This is suitable for internal fencing for sheep and cattle.
  • Spacings between wires from the ground upwards can be 150mm, 150mm, 190mm, 200mm, and 210mm.
  • Posts can be up to 10m apart.
  • Alternative wires can be hot or only the first and third from the ground upward.
  • You can make it a standard practice that all top wires are powered but kept dead for ease of climbing over.
  • Power the top wire if you have cattle.
  • Some farmers have the bottom wire dead as it is the one most easily shorted by herbage and it too allows safe passage for hedgehogs.
Electricfied netting
  • This is netting made of plastic cord into which hot wires are woven, so all of it is hot.
  • It’s only a temporary fence and is very useful when controlling pasture or crops by strip grazing and other odd jobs around the farm to direct sheep for a short term.
  • If it’s correctly put up and kept tight, it works well. It’s easy to move and transport, and works if no pressured from large numbers of sheep– and where sheep have been trained to respect a shock.
Extra points on power fencing
  • Before you start power fencing the farm draw up a good plan so that different areas of the farm can be isolated by switches conveniently placed around the farm.
  • Put gateways on high points rather than in low points where sheep may rush down hill and smother.
  • If you buy sheep that are not used to power fences then they will need time to learn. Put them for a spell in a paddock with a good seven-wire fence with a hot wire about 500 mm from the ground. Leave them in there till the feed gets short and they start fancying the feed in the next paddock!
  • If you have metal gates, make sure there are no leaks from the fence to the gate. Grabbing a hot gate is not a nice experience, especially if it’s your entrance one! Nicely-brought-up people say some funny things when they are surprised by 4000 volts!

Scrim (Hessian)
  • A large roll of scrim (Hessian) has been used by shepherds to get ewes and lambs into the pens at docking for generations.
  • The ewes and their small lambs cannot see through it, and apart from the ones that jump over, you can drive them into pens or yards. The skill is to keep the pressure on them and never let them have space to get a run at the fence you have created.
  • So if you ever need a visual barrier, a bit of scrim is ideal, being light and not bulky when rolled up.
Disclaimer
This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - Glossary

Extensive glossary of technical and commonly used farming terms concerned with sheep farming, shearing and wool preparation, and preparation of sheep skins.

By Dr Clive Dalton



SHEEP
  • Alpha lambs: Unweaned lambs too heavy for the beta trade, and up to 18-20kg live weight. They are not tail-docked or castrated.
  • Beta or bobby lamb: Milk fed lamb fed on the ewe from 1 to 3 weeks of age, going for slaughter at around 14kg live weight. They are not usually tail-docked or castrated.
  • Cast-for-age (CFA): Old ewes culled from the flock because of age; usually over 5 years old.
  • Cast sheep: Sheep found lying on its back unable to get up, usually because it is heavy in lamb or has a heavy fleece.
  • Cryptorchid: There are two meanings. A true cryptorchid is a male with undescended testicle or testicles, but the term is also used to describe a lamb that has been made infertile (ie castrated) by applying a rubber ring below the testicles to remove the scrotum, leaving the testes pushed up against the body (see Castration below).
  • Dry ewe: Did not produce a lamb.
  • Dry/dry: Did not produce a lamb – barren or did not get pregnant.
  • Drift lambing: Where un-lambed ewes are moved quietly from among ewes that have just lambed.
  • Easy-care: System where shepherds leave ewes to lamb on their own - called “minimal care”. They go round to help any ewes having problems but cull them later.
  • Ewe: Mature female sheep, usually over two years old.
  • Fecundity: Ability to produce and rear offspring.
  • Fertility: Ability to produce fertile eggs (ova) in the ewe and viable semen in the ram.
  • Flock: A group of sheep of any size.
  • Flock ram: Non registered ram used in a commercial flock.
  • Flushing: Feeding a ewe on a rising plane of nutrition three weeks before mating to stimulate more eggs being shed from the ovary.
  • Four-tooth: Four permanent incisors in place - from 21-24 months to 30-36 months old.
  • Full mouth: All eight permanent incisors in place - older than 42-46 months.
  • Hogget: Young sheep from weaning at 4 months to the time when it’s central permanent incisors erupt at about14-16 months of age. The hogget stage usually ends when they are shorn at around 14 months of age.
  • Joining: Putting a ram out to run with ewes.
  • Lamb: Young sheep between birth and weaning (up to about 3 to 4 months old). Note: the meat industry uses the term “lamb” for sheep that have not yet got their first pair of permanent incisors, i.e. up to a year old or a little older.
  • Long tailer: Male with tail left undocked to indicate that it was not castrated.
  • Perinatal lamb mortality: Lambs that die within three days of birth.
  • Ram: Male sheep of any age.
  • Shear: Term used mainly at saleyards in the South Island for male or female sheep denoting how many times they have been shorn and hence their age, eg one-shear or two-shear ewes. It's more common to see them described them by their teeth.
  • Shearling: Male or female sheep 14-16 months of age after being shorn once.
  • Stud ram: Ram registered with a breed association or society.
  • Tail-up, chaser or follow-up ram: Ram used at the end of joining to mate any late-cycling ewes.
  • Six-tooth: Six permanent incisors in place - from 30-36 months to 42-46 months old.
  • Slink: Lamb either born dead or died soon after, processed for its skin.
  • Teaser: Vasectomised ram.
  • Two-tooth: Two central permanent incisors in place - sheep from 12-18 months to 21-24 months old.
  • Tupping: Mating or joining (a tup is another name for a ram).
  • Weaning: Permanently removing lambs from their mothers.
  • Wet/dry: A ewe that produced a lamb but did not rear it.
  • Wether: Castrated male.

WOOL

  • Bale: Package of wool in a regulation wool pack weighing at least 100kg. The maximum packed weight is 181kg for fleece and lambs wool and 204 for oddments.
  • Bale cap: The top of the bale on which you stencil the details.
  • Belly wool: Wool from the underside of the sheep.
  • Blades: Hand shears.
  • Blade shearing: Sheep shorn with the blades leaving more wool on the body for cold conditions.
  • Blend: A line of wool resulting from thorough mixing within or between types.
  • Body wool: Wool from the main body of the sheep.
  • Brand: Coloured mark used for identification of a wool bale or on the side of a sheep.
  • Break: A weakness in a wool fibre usually caused by low feeding levels. It causes the fibre to go thin and lose tensile strength.
  • Britch wool: Wool off the lower thighs or britch of the sheep.
  • Broken: Pieces of wool from which the short dirty ends have been removed.
  • Bulk: The resilience of “bounce back” property of wool.
  • Burr: Hooked seeds in wool that cause problems in manufacture.
  • Catching pen: The pen next to the shearing board that holds the sheep for the shearer.
  • Chalkiness: Property by which Down breed wools and very hairy wools reflect light. Sometimes called whiteness.
  • Character: A composite term used to describe a staple of wool. The amount of crimp in the staple is an important part of it.
  • Classing: Grouping similar wools into saleable lines.
  • Clean wool: Scoured or washed wool.
  • Clean weight: Weight of clean usable fibre obtained from greasy wool.
  • Clip: The wool produced from a farm or group of sheep.
  • Coarse wool: Same as “strong” wool characteristic of some breeds.
  • Colour: The washability factor of wool. Colour is measured by an instrument and affects wool’s ability to accept dyes.
  • Comb: The part of a shearing handpiece that enters the wool to hold it while it is cut by the cutters.
  • Condition: The amount of yolk, sand or earth present in greasy wool.
  • Core sample: Sample of wool cut from each bale by hollow steel tube under vacuum.
  • Cott: Fleece that has become matted during growth.
  • Count: The old term to describe the fineness of greasy wool. Now micron measurements are used.
  • Crimp: The natural wave formation of wool. In general the smaller the crimps the finer the wool.
  • Crossbred wool: Wool produced by Romney, Perendale, Coopworth, Leicester and Lincoln sheep and their crosses – other than with the Merino.
  • Crutchings: Wool removed from the rear end (the crutch) of sheep. Normally much coarser than the body wool.
  • Cutter: Part of the shearing handpiece that reciprocates across the comb to sever the fibres.
  • Dags: Wool contaminated with faeces from the rear of the sheep.
  • Dead wool: Wool from a dead sheep.
  • Dingy wool: Discoloured wool caused by condition or dust.
  • Double fleece: Fleece wool of more than 12 month’s growth.
  • Down-type wool: Wool from Down-type meat breeds such as Southdown, Suffolk, Hampshire and their crosses. Sometimes called short-wools.
  • Early-shorn wool: Fleece wool usually of 7-10 months growth that hangs lightly together as a fleece.
  • Eye clips: Trade term for wool removed from the side of the sheep’s face at crutching.
  • Fadge: Package of wool in a wool pack weighing less than 100kg.
  • Fibre: Single strand of wool.
  • Fleece: Body wool shorn from a sheep.
  • Fleeco: Person who handles the newly-shorn fleece in the shearing shed.
  • Flyblown wool: Wool contaminated with blowfly maggots. Typed as dead wool.
  • Follicle: Structure in the skin out of which a wool or hair fibre grows.
  • Fribs: Shorter, tightly curled and discoloured wool from the brisket and four points of the sheep.
  • Full wool: Ten to 13 months growth of wool.
  • Grab sample: Wool sample drawn at random from the bales in a line. Needs to average 250g per grab and a minimum of 4kg per lot. Placed in display boxes for buyers’ appraisal.
  • Grading: Sorting out wool for sale into lines.
  • Greasy wool: Wool as shorn from the sheep and containing the natural impurities of wax, suint and dirt.
  • Hair: Fibre similar in chemical composition to wool but containing a medulla.
  • Halfbred wool: Wool from Corriedale or New Zealand Halfbred or similar sheep containing between one quarter and three quarters Merino blood.
  • Handle: The feel of wool.
  • Handpiece: The handheld part of the shearing machine.
  • Hunger-fine wool: Wool that has grown much finer than normal due to low feeding levels or starvation.
  • Kemp: Short white brittle medullated fibres which are shed from the fleece. Common in carpet breeds like the Drysdale and some others such as the Cheviot.
  • Lambs wool: Wool shorn from lambs.
  • Lanolin: Natural product derived from the grease in wool.
  • Line of wool: Several bales of wool of similar type.
  • Locks: Short wool that has either fallen through the slats on the wool table or been swept from the shearing board.
  • Longwool sheep: Sheep of British origin that grow coarse wool more than 100mm in staple length in 12 months, e.g. Romney, Coopworth, Lincoln and Leicester.
  • Lot: Line of wool offered for sale. Minimal number of four bales (460kg) or under special conditions may be offered as a star lot or ten bales.
  • Lustre: Sheen characteristic of some coarser wools, e.g. Lincoln and Leicester.
  • Medium wool: Middle of the range of a specific type of wool in terms of fibre diameter.
  • Medulla: the cavity up the centre of hairy (medullated) fibres.
  • Merino wool: Type of wool grown by sheep with more than three quarters Merino blood.
  • Micron (µm): Unit used to describe the diameter of a wool fibre. One micron equals one millionth of a metre.
  • Moit: Vegetable matte other than seeds and burrs.
  • Mulesing: Cutting wrinkled skin from around the anus of Merino sheep.
  • Neck wool: Matted collar wool from around the neck of a sheep.
  • New wool: Wool used in the manufacture of fabrics for the first time.
  • Oddments: Parts of a fleece other than the body wool that are sold separately, e.g. belly, neck, crutchings, locks and pieces.
  • Open faced: Breeds with no wool on their heads so they can see easily.
  • Overgrown wool: Fleece wool that is more than 12 month’s growth.
  • Pieces: Body wool trimmings removed from the fleece when it is skirted after shearing.
  • Pizzle stain: Unscourable urine staining in wether and ram belly wool and ewe crutchings.
  • Pre-lamb shearing: Shearing ewes during late winter or early spring before lambing.
  • Pressing: Compressing loose wool into bales in the shearing shed.
  • Quality number: An old subjective system to estimate the fineness and consequent spinning capacity of wool. Based on the Bradford worsted yarn count system,
  • Quarterbred wool: Wool from sheep containing between five- and seven-eights Merino blood and the remainder Longwool blood.
  • Raddle: Paint, aerosol spray, greasy crayon or chalk used to put a mark on a sheep’s fleece. It must be approved as being scourable.
  • Rouseabout or Rousie: General hand working in a shearing shed.
  • Sale by sample: Method of displaying wool before an auction where only a sub-sample withdrawn mechanically from the line of wool (minimum of 10 bales), is displayed in a cardboard box for buyer evaluation along with a yield test certificate.
  • Scouring: Washing wool to remove the natural impurities of wax, suint and dirt.
  • Second cut: Wool fibres which are cut twice during shearing by poor technique. The short pieces are of little value.
  • Shearing board: Area in shearing shed where sheep are shorn.
  • Shearing gang: Group of people employed by a farmer to shear, sort and bale the wool clip.
  • Shearing shed: Building where sheep are shorn.
  • Shedhand: Person other than a shearer who works in a shearing shed.
  • Shed-up: Confining woolly sheep in a shearing shed before shearing – usually to prevent them getting wet.
  • Sheepo: Person in a shearing shed who fills the catching pens. Shearers shout “Sheepo” to indicate their catching pen is empty.
  • Sixty-nine: Call made to let shearers and shedhands know ladies or visitors are entering the woolshed.
  • Skep: Pronouncied “skip”. A trolley to carry loose wool in a woolstore or mill. Also called a dobbin.
  • Skirting: Removing oddments from a fleece after shearing.
  • Slipe wool: Wool recovered from pelts in an abbatoir.
  • Sound wool: Wool without any weakness in tensile strength.
  • Sox: Kempy fibres growing between the sheep’s knee and hoof.
  • Stain: Discoloration of wool caused by water, bacteria, fungi and dirt that cannot be scoured out. Examples are – canary stain, log stain.
  • Stand: The area on the shearing board where each shearing machine is placed.
  • Staple: Naturally formed cluster of fibres in a fleece. Staples are joined by cross fibres which bind the fleece together.
  • Star lot: Small sale lot of specialty type wools of usually one to three bales.
  • Steely wool: Wool with a shiny appearance that lacks crimp. Associated with copper deficiency.
  • Stringy: Wool with a thin staple.
  • Strong wool: Wool with a coarse fibre diameter.
  • Style: Combined assessment of the degree of excellence or fault of wool.
  • Suint: Natural water soluble impurity of wool grease.
  • Sweat locks: Short, heavy-condition staples from the upper inside of the legs.
  • Sweepo: Person who sweeps the shearing board during shearing.
  • Tally: Number of sheep shorn by a shearer or a gang in a nine-hour day, or the number of sheep in a group.
  • Tender: Wool with a tensile weakness. A less severe form of break.
  • Threequarterbred wool: Wool types judged to be from sheep containing between three-eighths and one-eighth Merino blood and the remainder Longwool blood.
  • Tippy wool: Wool with a very pointed tip to the staple.
  • Topknot: Wool shorn from the top of a sheep’s head.
  • Type: Suitability of wool for a particular form of processing and end use, or the wool from a particular breed.
  • Unsound: Wool with a tensile weakness. Incorporates both tender and broken wool.
  • Vegetable matter: Seed, small twigs, foliage, chaff or hay embedded in a fleece.
  • Webby: Mild entanglement of fibres within a fleece. Early stage of cotting.
  • Wigging: Shearing wool from the head of a sheep. Also called topknots or wigs.
  • Wool away: The shearers call to clear the wool away from the shearing board.
  • Woolblind: Sheep that has so much wool over the face that it cannot see.
  • Wool broker: Person or company that prepares and offers a grower’s clip for sale on a fee or commission basis.
  • Wool buyer: Person who buys wool from a grower either privately or at auction on behalf of a processor and arranges shipment to the processor.
  • Wool classer: Person trained to put wool together in groups of similar types.
  • Wool grease: Natural impurities of wool (wax and suint) secreted by glands attached to the wool follicle. Also called yolk.
  • Wool merchant: Person or firm trading in wool.
  • Wool table: Slatted table on which the fleece is skirted and classed.
  • Woolgrower: Anyone who farms sheep to produce wool.
  • Woolly hog: Fleece from a hogget unshorn as a lamb.
  • Woolpack. Jute or polypropylene bag of regulated dimensions or packing wool.
  • Woolscour: Plant where wool is washed or scoured.
  • Woolshed: Same as shearing shed.
  • Woolstore: Place where wool is prepared and offered for sale.
  • Yield: Proportion of usable fibre present in a lot of greasy wool expressed as a percentage.
  • Yolk: Natural impurities of wool(wax and suint) secreted by glands attached to the wool follicle.

SHEEP SKINS
  • Cockle: Lamb/sheep skin pelt defect. A preventable disease that shows nodules over the pelt surface.
  • Dresser skin: Woolly lamb skin suitable for processing into leather with the wool attached for rugs, car seat covers, etc.
  • Fellmongering skin: Woolly lamb/sheep skin which has been processed into leather after the wool has been removed.
  • Fellmongering: Factory or department of an abbatoir or meat works where wool is removed from lamb/sheep pelts.
  • Grain: Surface layer of pelt, hide or leather containing wool or hair follicles.
  • Green skin: Undried skin from farm or slaugher facility. Such skins have no keeping quality.
  • Paint: Chemical mixture capable of penetrating the skin and loosening the wool fibres.
  • Pelt: Lamb/sheep skin after wool has been removed.
  • Pickled pelt: Lamb/sheep pelt preserved for export with brine and sulphuric acid. The product from a fellmongery.
  • Pinhole: Lamb/sheep pelt defect. Small holes in the grain caused by wool fibres growing in groups. Prevalent in fine wool breeds.
  • Ribby pelts: Pelts of wrinkly sheep such as Merino that have restricted value for leather manufacture.
  • Skin: Derived from a sheep, goat, deer or possum.
  • Slink skin: Derived from a lamb that has either been born dead or died soon after birth, and is processed for its skin.
  • Wet blue: Hide or skin tanned with chromium salts which also colour it blue/green and is kept in a wet state.
  • Wool pull: Estimate of weight of wool able to be removed from a skin in a fellmongery.
  • Wool puller: Person or machine used to remove wool from a lamb/sheep skin after it has been chemically loosened.

Sheep Farm Husbandry - References and Further Reading

Sources of information from text books, research papers, technical leaflets & reports, sheep industry organisations' publications

By Dr Clive Dalton


Dalton, D. C. (1980).
Introduction to practical animal breeding.
Out of print. Photocopies of First edition available from Dr Clive Dalton, 12 Maple Avenue, Dinsdale, Hamilton 3204. Price $45 which includes GST and postage within New Zealand
Blackwell Scientific Publications
ISBN 0-246-11194-1

Dalton, D.C. (2007) Third edition with cartoons by David Henshaw
Internal parasites of sheep and their control – now and in the future. Background information for farmers.
Reward publishing. ISBN 978-0-473-12133-4
Available from Dr Clive Dalton, 12 Maple Avenue, Dinsdale, Hamilton 3204. Price $27 which includes GST and postage within New Zealand

Geenty, K.G. (1999)
Editor: The New Zealand Sheep Council. Third edition
A guide to feed planning for sheep farmers (2009)

Geenty, K.G. (1997)
Editor: Wools of New Zealand and New Zealand Meat Producers Board
A guide to improved lambing percentage. 200 by 2000
ISBN 0-908768-75-3

Grant, I. F.(Editor) (2008)
The Farmers’ Veterinary Guide
Publisher: 3Media Group, Level 7, 67 Symonds Street, Auckland
ISBN 978-0-473-13622-2

A guide to improved lamb growth, 400 plus (2000)
New Zealand Sheep Council
ISBN 0-908768-96-6

Coleby, P. (2000)
Healthy sheep naturally
Lanklinks Press
ISBN 0-643-06524-5

Fencer Fred. (Aspen, S.D). (2004)
Hand-made farm fence #852
ISBN 0-476-01064-0

Gavigan. R. & Rattray, P. (Editors). New Zealand Sheep Council.
A guide to hogget mating – 100 more.
ISBN 0-908768-02-8

Lundie, R.S. & Wilkinson, E.J (2004). Editors
The world of coloured sheep
Proceedings of the 6th congress on coloured sheep, Christchurch, New Zealand
ISBN 0-476-00928-6

Lynch, J.J., Hinch, G.N., Adams, D.B. (19920)
The behaviour of sheep. Biological principles and implications for production
CAB & CSIRO
ISBN 0-85198-787-7

McCutcheon, S.N., McDonald, M.F., Wickham, G.A. (Editors) (1986)
Sheep production Volume 2. Feeding, growth and health
NZ Institute of Agricultural Science
ISBN0-908596-24-3

Martin, C.P. (2004)
Processing of sheepskins from abattoir to finished product
The word of coloured sheep. Proceedings of the 6th World Congress on Coloured Sheep, Christchurch New Zealand
ISBN 0-476-00928-6

New Zealand contacts in agriculture (2003)
Contacts Unlimited Ltd, Email office@contacts.co.nz
ISBN 0-9582248-4-6

Meadows, G. (2008)
Pocket guide to sheep breeds of New Zealand
New Holland
ISBN 978-1-86966-225-7

Rattray, P.V. (2003)
Helminth parasites in the New Zealand meat and wool pastoral industries: A review of current issues. Final report, commissioned by Meat & Wood Innovation Ltd
228 pages. Available free from Meat & Wood New Zealand
Website www.meatandwoolnz.com

Schering-Plough Coopers
Farmers’ Guide to Drench Resistance. 2005
Free brochure available by phoning 0800 800 543

Schering-Plough Coopers
Lice advice. A Farmer’s Guide to Lice Control in sheep. 2005
Free brochure available by phoning 0800 800 54
Lice Technical Manual 2004
Free brochure available by phoning 0800 800 543

Simmons, P., Ekarius, C. (2001)
Storey’s guide to raising sheep. Breeding;care;facilities.
Storey Books
ISBN1-58017-262-8

West, D.M., Bruère, A.N., Ridler, A.L. (2002)
The sheep: health, disease & production
Veterinary Continuing Education, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
ISSN 0112-9643. 446p.

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, codes of welfare and minimum standards
These codes are available on the website of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal-welfare/ or from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Animal Welfare, PO Box 2526, Wellington, New Zealand. There may be a charge depending on the quantity requested.

Welfare code for sheep.
Code of Animal Welfare No. 3 (Revised) July 1996.
ISBN 0-477-08550-4.

Code of Welfare (Painful Husbandry Procedures)
Code of welfare No. 7. 2005
ISBN 0-478-29800-5

Animal welfare
Code for the welfare of animals at the time of slaughter at licensed and approved premises.
Code of Animal Welfare No.10., July 1994.
ISBN 0-478-07337-2.

Code for the welfare of animals transported within New Zealand.
Code of Animal Welfare No.15. November 1994
ISBN 0-478-07372-0

Code for the sea transport of sheep from New Zealand.
Code of Animal Welfare No. 2, September 1991
ISBN 0-477-08159-2

Code for the welfare of animals at saleyards.
Code of Animal Welfare No. 16. November 1995.
ISBN 0-477-08151-7

Code for the welfare of emergency slaughter of farm livestock.
Code of Animal Welfare No.19. December 1996
ISBN 0-4-478-07431-1.

Code of welfare of exhibit animals and information for animal exhibit operators.
Code of Animal Welfare No. 14. November 1999.
ISBN 0-478-07366-6

Meadows, G.(1997)
Sheep breeds of New Zealand
Reed. ISBN0-7900-0583-2

New Zealand Veterinary Journal (2001). Volume 49: Number 6: pages 212-127.
Feature review series on internal parasites

New Zealand Sheep Council and Merial New Zealand Ltd. (1998)
Parasite notes
ISBN 0-473-04927-9.

Wools of New Zealand
New Zealand sheep and their wool (1994)

Wormwise. National worm management strategy (2008).
A Handbook of Sustainable Worm Management for Livestock Farmers
Meat & Wool New Zealand

Uljee, B., Rennie, N. (1999)
Livestock recording for sheep and beef
ISBN 0-477-08245-9

Verkade, Tineka. (2002)
Homeopathic handbook for dairy farmers
HFS Ltd., PO Box 9025, Hamilton, New Zealand. Email
ISBN 0-473-08376-0.

January 1, 2009

A Beuk o’ Newcassell Sangs- Collected by Joseph Crawhall 1888


An old book of Tyneside songs

By Clive Dalton


My mother was born in 1899 at Clara Vale, in County Durham and after leaving school at age 14 went into “Domestic Service” for the Clayton family at Chesters near Humshaugh. They were Tyneside industrialists. She rose to the to dizzy rank of “Head Housemaid” and was highly regarded by the Claytons.

My evidence for this was the fact that mother always proudly told of being visited by Mrs Clayton at 6 Noble Street in Bellingham where Dad (who worked on the railway at Redesmouth station) and her rented from the Duke of Northumberland. In fact Mrs C was probably of help in then getting a Duke’s house to rent.

On the left of the picture, the servant's quarters are on the first floor at the rear of Chesters. Below were the massive kitchens. That's the back door and tradesman's entrance where the pillars are.

Mother always treasured an old book which she said Mrs Clayton had given her – a “Beuk o’ Newcassel Sangs”. We didn’t have many books in the house – the three main ones bought from coupons collected from something or other were the set of three; a black dictionary, a green gardening book and “the red doctor’s book”. This was fatal to read as you ended up having everything it described!

I still have this “Beuk o’ Newcassel Sangs” and here’s some information about it. An interesting feature are the pictures made from woodcuts and I have seen some of these reproduced in other books over the years without acknowledgment.

There are two Claytons in the list of book sponsors but they are not listed as from Chesters. They may have been relatives.

I learned one thing about books of this vintage, you never lend them! I once lent this book to a Geordie folk singer and had a terrible struggle to get it back. And he had the cheek to tick certain verses of songs with a ballpoint and put a line through others he didn't intend to sing! Nice bloke!


A Beuk o’ Newcassell Sangs Collected by Joseph Crawhall Newcastle-On-Tyne, Mawson, Swan & Morgan, M.D. CCC.LXXXVIII

In the front of this book Published in 1888 is a list of subscribers who responded to an invitation by Joseph Crawhall, of 2 Sydenham Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne, April 17th 1888. He writes this:

In April I addressed the following letter to our local press:
Newcastle Songs.
To the Editor of the Newcastle Courant

Sir, Desirous of putting on record and preserving in library from the best representatives of “Newcassel Sangs” by deceased poets, I venture to appeal to the Public to assist me. The music to each song, when procurable will be given, in addition to numerous illustrations. The estimated cost of printing 120 copies (exclusive of all advertisements and other charges) is seven shillings and ninepence halfpenny per copy, subject to reduction, in proportion to the increased number of copies required. If, therefore, 120 subscribers will register their names with Messrs Mawson, Swan & Morgan, Grey Street, Newcastle, at the price of 12s. 6p (twelve shillings and six pence) per copy, subject to reduction of 10s.6p per copy if the subscribers exceed 120, I will at once go to press. The manuscript and list of songs proposed to be included can be seen at Messrs Mawson, Swan & Morgan’s (the printers), who will, if desired, forward a printed list of intending subscribers. Should this proposal be entertained by the public, I have every confidence in giving entire satisfaction. I am, etc.,
JOSEPH CRAWHALL.

Call for subscriptions
The Newcastle Courant and The Daily Journal assisted me by its insertion. The other, taking a strictly commercial view, very properly declined. Over a period of two months the Ladies and Gentlemen whose names are recorded on a preceding page registered themselves as Subscribers.

Now that the Book is before the Public- content with my labour for my pains - and prior to breaking up the type, I wish to inform those desirous of possession at barely remunerative (all round) price of 10/6 per copy, they can be had for a limited period at my publishers, Mawson, Swan & Morgan, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. After distribution of type the price of any remaining copies will be considerably increased.
JOSEPH CRAWHALL

Fore- Speech
A Caledonian on literary and Library forming proclivities intent, invited a hint concerning a selection from the works of our English Poets.
Chaucer as a start-point was (perhaps rashly) suggested, and to a later query – “How progresses the Library?” – quoth he – “Oo! Fine-aw peck’t up Chowcer t’ither day, but – Maun- aw can no read ett!”

To the general reader it is much feared that the contents of this volume may present a like difficulty. Failing however appreciation and comprehension of our Northumbrian speech, the collection may, it is hoped, find favour in home circles, and the added tunes prove a solace to all.

In the latter I have received the valuable assistance of Mr John Stokoe, whose name is so well known in connection with the collection of “Northumbrian Minstrelsy,” recently published by the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Only the best and most popular Songs have been selected as fairly representing deceased local poets, and all of Political, pseudo-Military, and Athletic character rejected. Others of considerable merit might have been included, save for the intervention of the proverbially immaculate “Bowdler.” The numerous and untrammelled “Sculptures” savour withal of Cathnach and Crawhall.

Contents
  • Aboot the Bush, Willy – Amphitrite, The, by Robert Gilchrist to the tune “Gee-ho! Dobbin,” popularly known as “Cappy”.
  • Andrew Carr or Kerr
  • A.U. Hinny Burd
  • Aw wish thy Muther wad cum, by Joseph Wilson to the tune “The Whusslin Thief"
  • Blackett o’ Wylam
  • Bobby Shaftoe
  • Bonnie pit laddie, The
  • Buy Broom Buzzems, by William Purvis
  • Canny Newcassel, by Thomas Thompson
  • Cappy’s the Dog, by William Mitford or Midford; to the tune “Gee-ho! Dobbin.
  • Colliers Rant, The
  • Cuddle me, Cuddy, or, The Peacock followed the Hen
  • Cum, Geordie, haud the Bairn
  • Fenwick o’ Bywell
  • Fiery Clock-fyece, The, by Robert Nunn to the tune “The Coal-hole
  • Floatin’ Grunstane, The, by William Armstrong; to the tune “Derry Down”
  • Holiday Gown, The, by John Cunningham
  • Hydrophobie, by Robert Emery; to the tune of “The Cameronian’s Rant” or “X, Y, Z”
  • Jenny Hoolet, The, or Lizzie Mudie’s Ghost, by W Armstrong; to the tune “Gee-ho! Dobbin”
  • Keelman’s reason for attending Church, The; to the tune “Jimmy Johnson’s Wherry”
  • Keel Row, The
  • Little Pee-dee, The; to the tune “The Irish Drops o’ Brandy"
  • Lizzie Mundie’s Ghost
  • Lord Size, My by John Shield; to the tune “Newcassel in an Uproar”
  • My Love is Newly Listed
  • Newcassel Beer, by John Cunningham; to the tune “Hunting the Hare"
  • Peacock followed the hen, The by William Mitford; to the tune “The Night before Larry was stretch’d” or “The Irish drops o’ Brandy”
  • Sailors are a’ at the Bar, The
  • Sair fyel’d Hinny
  • Sandage Lass’s Lament, The; to the tune of “The Manchester Angel”
  • Spottie (Sunderland)
  • Tyne Exile’s Lament, The; to the tune “Banks o the Dee”
  • Up the Raw
  • Use and Abuse, or “The Pitman and the Preachers” by J.P. Robson; to the tune “Canny Newcassel”
  • Water o’ Tyne
  • Weshin’-day, The by Thomas Wilson; to the tune “There’s nae luck aboot the hoose”.
Some of the 111 subscribers names listed
• Allan, Thomas, Blackett Street, Newcastle (2 copies)
• Arnison, Dr. Allendale
• Bewick, Miss, Cherryburn, near Stocksfield
• Bell, Oswin, Esq., Tynemouth
• Benson, w.R., Esq., Newgate Street, Newcastle (2 copies)
• Bruce, Rev., Dr., Framlington Place, Newcastle
• Blackett, C.E. Esq., Dumfries (2 copies).
• Clayton, Richard, Esq., Wylam Hall
• Clayton, N. G. Esq., West Denton, Newcastle (2 copies)
• Cowen J., Esq., Blaydon-on-Tyne.
• Charlton, W.L. Esq., Carrieteth, Bellingham
• Cook, W., Esq., Hexham
• Dees, R. R. Esq., Wallsend
• Dunn, A., Esq., Castle Hill, Wylam-on-Tyne
• Dixon, D.D., Esq., Rothbury
• Embleton, D.C., St Wilfrid’s, Bournemouth
• Public Library, Newcastle
• Palmer, Sir C.M. MP. Grinkle Park, Loftus in Cleveland
• Robson, Shaftoe, Esq., Chowdene Cottage, Gateshead
• Richardson, W.H., Esq., JP. Jarrow (2 copies)
• Shield, H., Esq., QC, 2 Gray’s Inn Square, London WC
• Taylor, H. Esq., Chipchase Castle, Wark-on-Tyne.
• Walker, Rev J.,Whalton










Tales From the Dales - by Dennis Chisholm

Tales from the Dales
By F.D. Chisholm

The Pentland Press Ltd (1977)
ISBN 1-85821-479-3


Weardale farm (photo Don Clegg)

Dennis Chisholm was born at Stapleton near Darlington in 1923. He was the second son of a farm worker and when his father died in 1934, he worked as a farm labourer before and during WW2. During the war he served in the Home Guard and after the war got married and with two daughters lived in Marton near Middlesborough.

Dennis’s tales of life on the farm, are a priceless historical record of all aspects of farming at that time – and especially of the people involved and their attitudes to employment and life in the Dales. He writes with the sincerity and wry humour of a true Dalesman. His Home Guard tales are hilarious – and it’s fortunate that Hitler t turned to the Russian front and didn’t cross ‘watta at Dunkirk and head for the North Riding of Yorkshire! Dennis and his mates would have had ‘im for’t breckus! Here’s some salutations he quotes to get troops movin':

  • How-ay men, get up, think of your country, there’s a war on, or doesn’t it bother you, just for once show willing!
  • Get up men, or do you want the day off to lig in bed, if you do just say and you can eft, so as you get up to milk fost!
  • You can’t mak brass wi liggin i’bed, if I were you lot, ar’d get up and man some, that’s if yoe eve owt about yer.
  • If Hitler gets here, you blokes won’t be ablt ti lig i’ bed of a morning, so mak the most of it now while I’m in charge, and think a bit about yer.

Then he has some more great philosophical quotes about making the most of each day:
  • By working faithfully eight hours a day, you may eventually get to be the boss and work twelve hours a day.
  • Give a difficult task to a lazy man, and he’ll find an easier way of doing it.
  • Things are that bad men, all I ever put by for a rainy day is a pair of dry beets, an you lot cudn’t care less.
  • When I was your age, my boots were niver cold, I could nivver lig i’ bed sa lang az you lot, I wadn’t want to anyway.
  • A wise man is ignorant of things that are not worth knowing.
  • It’s twenty past five, Broadwith’s men hve been up an hour, and you lot still liggin i’ bed.
  • By you do tak some shiftin ev a morning, you want my bed to lig on for a change.
  • If I were you lot, I’d tak me bed ti Croft’s an sleep on it there for the night, for what good you are on a morning, you won’t get up.
  • You lot want less food. Miss Hunter feeds you ower well, if you were hungry, you’d get up for breakfast, not lig i’ bed so long.
  • If a naked woman was running around outside, you lot wadn’t get up ti ev a look, so get up just for once men.
  • How-ay men, sun will soon be up, are your going to lig there till it burns your ee’s out?
  • By god men, I is bad this morning, if I live long eneeuf ar’ll likely dee, then you can call it a day farming here, you will soon be bankrupt
  • Furrows of repentance are plowed i’ youth, and sow’d wi t’ seeds o’ pleasure, but harvest ‘ez ti be reaped with a blunt sickle when yan’s back is bent and gitten past work.
  • He who does not rise early, never does a good day’s work.
  • A beggar can never be bankrupt.
  • A moneyless man goes fast through the market.
Dennis has an excellent glossary of some Dale’s dialect words.


Dennis lives at 50 Gunnergate Lane, Marton, Middlesborough, TS7-8JB