New Zealand farm working dogs. The NZ Huntaway

By Dr Clive Dalton

The monument to the New Zealand Huntaway at Hunterville.
Farmers can buy a paving stone around the bronze sculptor to record their own huntaway's name and dates of its loyal working career.
(Photo by Molly Dalton 2012)

History

Nobody knows the true history of the New Zealand Huntaway - it was never written down. The early shepherds had imported 'eye dogs' to go around sheep to gather (muster) them, but very soon they found they needed to move sheep off steep hill country and mountainous High Country runs where a dog with a lot more 'force' or 'punch' and with a good bark (noise) was needed. Shepherds wanted a dog that could 'hunt sheep away' from the handler, while the heading dog could go around them to stop them escaping.

But the Huntaway also had to 'head' sheep but without any 'eye' like the heading dog. The Huntaway's bark and dominant presence 'facing up' to the sheep was the secret in controlling and moving them. A Huntaway's bark can be switched on and off by command which is very important, as noise at the wrong time and in the wrong place, can lead to disasters such as a smothering of sheep where they pile up on top of each other and suffocate.

Bred solely for performance
The NZ Huntaway is one of the few animals that has been selected solely on the basis of 'performance'. Human 'fancy' and silly notions were never involved. If the pups from a mating didn't show any working instinct by about 6 months of age, they were euthanased as nobody wanted them for pets.

Also fortunately, there was no enthusiasts, breed society or Kennel Club to lay down rules about what a Huntaway should look like. Looks were the very last feature breeders were concerned about in a Huntaway as long as it did its job.

This is changing, (sadly in my view) as the Huntaway has been discovered to be a very loyal companion dog, and if we are not careful, their working genes will be weakened by selecting for 'pet' gens and diluting the working genes. This has happened with the Corgi, the Long-haired Collie (Lassie type) and the Sheltie. These were all working dogs before breeders started breeding them for the show ring and as companion animals.

This is happening at great pace in the Border Collie in New Zealand which is now a very popular companion dog for active people, and is now winning obedience competitions.

Functional traits
Huntaways have a hard life and on big farms they must easily cover up to 100km on a busy day, mustering and working sheep in yards and woolsheds. They need a great 'constitution', however that's measured. It involves a physique and physiology that doesn't break down under heavy load. The working dog is an athlete, and it's nutritional needs are similar to those identified by researchers studying sled dogs.

Legs, joint's, ligaments, and feet joints and pads are particularly vital parts. In recent years, hip dysplasia has been identified in the 'breed', if we dare call it a breed in the classical sense, which thankfully it is not. This weakness is being eliminated by X-ray idenitificaton, selection and culling. Twisted bowel also caused trouble in Huntaways for a number of years but breeders reckon it's been eliminated by honest pedigree recording and culling.

As Huntaway breeders bred larger dogs for more force and power, hip dysplasia developed more rapidly, and inbreeding to particular dogs that were regular winners at dog trials made things worse. It's both a genetic and an environmental (nutritional) problem and is being successfully managed from both these angles.

Mongrels or 'designer dogs'

A stockman's dog team
(L to R). NZ Huntaway, Australian Blue Heeler cattle dog, NZ Heading Dog

In the world of classical dog breeding, a Huntaway would be described as a 'mongel' (of unknown parentage). But in modern genetic terms, it's a wonderful example of using a 'gene pool' and throwing into the mix all the dog genes from around the place that have shown any ability to do the job required.

The story goes that farmers started with the Border Collie, mixed in some Beardie (Sheep dog from Northern Scotland), Old English sheepdog (from the English Downs), the Smithfield (working dogs from Smithfield market in London), Labrador, Fox hound, Retriever and goodness knows what else. German Shepherd was not involved.

A bit of Australian Kelpie could also have gone into the mix. The Kelpie was bred in Australia from Border Collies and breeders are adamant that no Dingo was used in their ancestry, though many don't believe this!

The Keplie and Queensland Blue Heeler in New Zealand are kept as breeds on their own, and you never let a Blue Heeler (also called the Australian Cattle dog) near sheep! The history of this dog has been well documented and is a fascinating story. There's Dalmation in its ancestry and the Dingo was used to remove its bark.

Both Kelpies and Blue Heelers are now popular companion dogs, so their working genes could be under threat over time, unless farmers protect their genetic working stock.

Stirring the pot
The next stage in Huntaway breeding was to give the pot a good stir, and select out ( solely on performance) pups that showed potential. These had to have a kind nature and show keen interest in sheep and/or cattle, and be keen to bark at stock with a good deep 'voice' when excited.

They have to do this by six months old as most farmers believe that feeding them beyond that is not economical. There are pups that are late starters, but they seldom get the chance to show potential.

This 'mixing pot' approach used by the early breeders - using Darwin's 'survival of the fittest', is in fact a very modern approach. It's what geneticists would recommend today if a new 'breed' or type of working dog had to be bred. The result would now be called a 'composite' or 'designer dog'.

Huntaway types
Look at the colours of the dogs in these pictures and guess what genes are in their ancestry. You can't be wrong as nobody really knows which is wonderful, and nobody is the least concerned as long as they do their job.

NZ Huntaway - classical black and tan colours. This is a young dog about
a year old and just starting full work. Note the solid body and legs, and great heart girth.
A dog trial veteran - black and tan classical Huntaway

NZ Huntaway with Beardie genes. Beardies are tough dogs and despite their
long hair, hot weather doesn't seem to slow them down.
Another example of Beardie ancestry


NZ Huntaway with Labrador genes or just a black dominant gene ?

Another example of way back Black Labrador ancestry ?

NZ Huntaway with red genes from Retriever (?) origins


NZ Huntaway with Beardie genes and possibly hound ancestry.
Who knows? Who cares?
Another couple with similar ancestry?

The 'Handy Dog'
Talking about 'handy dogs' can be controversial. These dogs are certainly not purposely bred any more, and farmers say that there are none around although they are needed. A handy dog will do everything - head sheep, hunt them away, catch ewes and lambs at lambing, work cattle and some farmers joke - they'll bring the paper from the gate.

Their main value is in working sheep in yards and the woolshed. They are sometimes called 'yard dogs'. They are generally the dog that will work for any member of staff which is a great advantage.

There's nothing worse than the one-man-dog who will only work for it's master, especially if someone else needs to use it in an emergency, such as when stock have escaped and you need a dog - badly! I speak from experience here as you end up having to run yourself!

Handy dogs apparently were common in the past but not any more as breeders are influenced by the requirements of dog trials. There used to be trials for handy dogs, and there have been recent attempts to revive them by running 'yarding trials' where dogs have to do general work moving sheep around yards. A good huntaway will of course do such work.

Heading - Huntaway crossing
No respectable breeder crosses a heading dog with a Hunatway to get a combination of both working skills to produce a 'handy dog'. But these dogs do exist on farms and probably happen by accidental matings, and with appropriate training, some turn out to be good for general farm work.

A Handy Dog - with both Heading and Huntaway genes which will do most
things and bark on command. This dog also has the Blue Merle recessive gene.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Cats Part 1

CAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Domestication: Social structure: Territory

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• Ancestors of domestic cats started to live alongside humans as early as 130,000 years ago attracted by vermin and discarded food scraps.
  
• Then when man changed from hunter-gatherer to village resident, the cat became domesticated. DNA evidence now shows cats can be traced to the Eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf (the Fertile Crescent) to five female ancestors. These “founding felines” came from a wild cat Felis libyca, still found in remote deserts of the Middle East.
• There are records of domesticated cats in ancient Egypt about 3500 years ago, where the cat was hunted for food and skins, and then encouraged to enter the human family for these reasons.
• It fitted easily into the human family hierarchy.
• It then developed religious significance in human society.
• Cats are very reward-seeking which always appealed to humans as well as their aloofness.
  
• Pest control was also a major reason for man keeping cats.
  

Modern cats

• There's a vast range of breeds, and there are breeders increasing new genetic types all the time as there is big money in being the exclusive owner of a new type of cat.
• We refer to "domesticated cats" or those that live in close association with man.
• Then there are "farm cats" that are domesticated but not keen on close human contact.
• "Feral cats" are those that have escaped from domestication and are fearful of human contact.
  

Social structure

• Cats are "reward-seeking" animals and this helps in developing a social hierarchy.
• Cats generally have a loose hierarchy - not as structured as dogs.
• They time share areas in their territory.
• Generally entire males are most dominant, followed by entire females, then spayed females and neutered males.
• Most wild cats live solitary lives, but they can also live happily as part of a group.
• Most domestic cats do the same but they have bonded owners to live with.
• The "mother-kitten" relationship is the basis of group development. The female kittens stay on with mum while the males leave to set up territories and go solitary.
• Some males are happy to stay in a single family group or they may move between groups.
• A social group of females allows for synchrony of oestrus and mutual care including cross suckling of kittens.
• Social structure becomes more defined and competitive when food is scarce, or where there is a limited amount of shelter.
• Remember there is a lot of individual variation between cats due to genetics and early environment.
  

Cats and territory

• Cats are territorial predators, which has important implications for modern humans.
• They have a home range that they routinely check out daily to hunt and explore.
  
• Home ranges of cats can overlap resulting in conflict and savage fights.
• Tom cats have large territories that can cover around 1 km in all directions for their den (home). But this depends on other Toms in the area and where there are few, a Tom may extend his territory to much greater size.
• Male cats know when they are not welcome in a strange area - note their stealth when they visit your property during a mating season.
• In their home range they have all they need - food source, shelter, social contact, urination and defaecation areas.
• They scent mark their range by clawing objects and spray urinating, and will protect it against intruders.
• Once established - this marking routine may provide an expression of security (marking in the house).
• Spraying. Urine contains glandular secretions so spraying is like leaving their CV around. It denoted gender, age, hormonal state and general health.
• Middening. Cats normally bury their faeces but they sometimes deliberately leave them on the surface to add scent to their territory, especially if they sense a challenge.
• Clawing. This is used as a visual sign but also leaves odours from the glands from the pedal (foot) glands.
• Nose rubbing. Cats rub their cheeks on twigs (and their owners) to leave odours from their cheek glands.
• Hunting the territory occurs mainly at dawn and dusk - they tend to be active only in short bursts. Cats are incapable of sustained effort.
• Cats are excellent climbers, and can handle falling in emergencies. They can swim when forced to, but it's not a preferred mode of transport.
• Territory becomes a problem in cages but cats can survive together, even including Toms. But it needs skilled observation.
  
• They can act in an "indifferent" mode to each other, as long as they have enough personal space above ground. The floor is used on a time-share basis.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Dogs Part 1

DOG BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Dogs and Society

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• The dog's ancestors evolved 35 million years ago and the modern dog has been traced using DNA in hair samples to a small group of female wolves living in East Asia some 15,000 years ago.
  
• Man developed much later - some 3.5 million years ago and the dog was first on the domestication list. A recent hypothesis is that man and dog evolved together for long periods with man losing his sense of smell as he relied more on the dog.

The wolf pack

• The wolf is a pack animal that hunts and lives communally and wolves have a very clear social hierarchy which was very similar to the human family. So wolves easily slotted into the early human family lifestyle.
• The wolf pack is led by an alpha male and alpha female (order can reverse), and there are constant challenges going on in the pack such as these:
• Young males are always fancying the top job.
• Young males start to work their way up the order to the top.
• Young males dominate young females.
• Changes in order when new adolescents come into family.
• Changes when old members leave or die.
• Females protecting their young.
• Females keeping the top male to herself.

Dog's benefits to early man
It's easy to imagine a stray wolf cub brought home and becoming a family pet followed by breeding and selection for many traits useful to man. For example the domesticated wolf could provide:

• Companionship and entertainment - a play mate for the children.Protection - it would warn of strangers. Selection for barking would take place.
• Hunting - the wolf would assist in the chase, especially appreciated by older humans as their speed was reduced by infirmity.
• Warmth at nights - Eskimos talk of a 2- of 3-dog night.
• Work and power - dogs are willing workers and can carry and pull loads.
• Effluent disposal - the early dog would also keep the house area clean, and eat human effluent.
• Meat and skins when it was slaughtered.
  

Recent DNA analysis

With recent DNA analysis, some scientists make the point that the relationship between humans and dogs makes no evolutionary sense. The DNA analysis now disproves the speculation about how man domesticated the wolf, and that the dog's hunting and herding instincts developed by selection long after domestication.

Then it's now accepted that today's wild dogs did not evolve from the wolf, as they are more social than wolves which were always loners to protect their territories to maintain a food supply. Modern wild dogs don't have the clear hierarchy seen in wolf packs and are much more social with a variety of dominance and submissive relationships. Neither do they have a strict territory like wolves do.

Impact of man on the dog

• Consider the different types of dog we have today. There over 200 breeds ranging in weight from less than 1kg to about 100kg.
  
• The question to consider is - have we've made genetic progress as perhaps some of these dogs (which many veterinarians consider have genetic defects) should have been euthanased and not saved for future breeding, or to form a new breed?
• There is big money to be made if you breed a new genotype - and you have exclusive rights to it. You can use cloning to multiply it so it's maybe time to ask "should there be laws against further genetic change in a "wrong" direction?
  
• Who's opinions do we accept and who needs to take control over what is done.
  

Dog's benefits to modern man

This list seems to get longer each year as people find new challenges for dogs and train them to achieve amazing feats well beyond the ability of man. Here are some examples:

• Farm working dogs handling livestock of a wide range of species. Without them, much land could not be farmed - e.g. New Zealand hill country.
• Used by conservationists to find pest species and feral animals. They can be trained to be very host specific so can find the species being protected for monitoring.
• Trained to locate game, and retrieve it when shot.
• Trained as guards to live with livestock and protect them from predators and thieves.
• Trained as "seeing-eye" dogs for the blind.

• Dogs guarding property that they see as their territory.
• Search and rescue dogs to find people in avalanches and earthquakes.
• To help people with impaired hearing.
• Helping the disabled by pulling wheelchairs and doing simple chores.
• Police dogs used to search for drugs and to find, attack and hold offenders.
• To find people on land and across water –e.g. the Bloodhound and Newfoundland respectively.
• Customs and Biosecurity dogs used to find drugs, fruit, etc.
• Used to find truffles buried under the ground in orchards - traditionally done by pigs.
• Trained to find the sites of old chemical dumps.
• Military dogs to locate landmines and explosives as well as the enemy and snipers.
• Trained to use their acute sense of smell to detect cancer cells and chemicals (ketones) from the nose of patients pre-seizure.
• Companions to young and old.

The dog in modern society

• After seeing the good things dogs do for man, it's important to consider the "problems" they cause in our sophisticated modern (urban) society.
  
• But if you ask an Animal Control Officer about "dog problems" they'll remind you that they rarely see dog problems, - they deal instead with "people problems" as dog owners are the cause.
  

Examples of "dog problems" as man sees them

These dogs bark all day at anything passing by, as their human pack leaders (owners) are at work. From their viewpoint - they're doing a great job, and they also alert all the other dogs in the street to warn them of potential threats.

These dogs bark during the night too to warn their pack leaders of threats. But the owners are either deaf or don't care about neighbours and never stop them barking. The owners originally got two pups to be company for each other when they were out at work - so now they are two bored adult dogs instead of one - along with very annoyed neighbours who can do little about the problem under the law.

• Dogs frightening people -rushing at people and biting them.
• Damage to property when their owners are out at work.
• Barking and annoying neighbours when their owners are away.
• Wandering. Dogs that run away and cause annoyance as they move around.
• Feral dogs living in town and country and threatening people, their pets and livestock.
• Harassing, mauling and killing livestock.
• Reproduction. Producing endless unwanted puppies that are dumped or handed to SPCAs to dispose of.
• Obesity. Grossly overfat dogs and dogs with other dietary problems.
  
• Confusion. Dogs are confused by their owners. It appears as if the dogs think they are human and the humans think they are dogs!
• Hierarchy confusion. The dog is confused about where it stands in the household as the rules are not consistent.
• Faeces in public places which other dogs then add to.
• Territorial aggression - where dogs attack to protect their home range.
• Genetic aggression - dogs bred for aggression that when stimulated savage anything they see as a threat - people, other dogs and livestock.
• Over-stimulated scatty dogs that annoy owners and visitors and can become aggressive.
• Mutilation required by breed standards e.g. tail and ear docking. Also "debarking" dogs by veterinarians for owners who cannot find another solution to their persistent barking dog.
• Problems caused by breed standards that require veterinary treatment - jaws, teeth and birth problems.
• Sexual habits - leg mounting and sniffing people.
• Dogs in the human pack.

Dogs are pack animals
Dogs prefer to live with dogs which is often a surprise to humans! Here are some important points to remember:

• Dogs like clear simple rules that are consistent.
• Dogs understand dogs! Humans can be very confusing.
• Dogs interpret human behaviour in a canine way and humans interpret dog behaviour in a human way.

The human pack from a dog's viewpoint

• Humans change clothes every day.
• Humans are not consistent in the way they smell.
• Humans change moods regularly.
• Humans are inconsistent in what they do each day.
• Different members of the human pack often have different rules.
• Humans can love you one moment and hate you the next.
  
• Humans make a fuss of you to show their love, and then go away and leave you.
• They die, split up and move house and cause confusion. (These are the three greatest man-dog bond breakers.
  

So when human shows inconsistency, then a confused dog is tempted to take the lead to sort things out and regain consistency.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Sheep Part 1

SHEEP BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Senses: Social behaviour: Feeding

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• Domestication of sheep started some11,000 years ago to produce an animal that was more docile and more flexible than the wild sheep to fit man's needs.
  
• Sheep proved to be very adaptable to a wide range of environments.
  
• After domestication, they spread across many continents and developed into a range of types.
  
• They are found from cold continental areas, in dry deserts, and right through to the tropics.

Uses for sheep:

• Meat
• Wool - clothing
• Skins - clothing, footwear, housing and saddles
• Milk - cheese
• Animal fat
• Offal - wide range of products and pharmaceuticals
• Companions - pets
  

Modern sheep problems
World sheep populations tend to be on the decrease for a number of reasons such as:

• Wool garments and carpets have gone out of fashion.
• The demand for wool is low, resulting in world surplus.
• Sheep have too many predators that are protected by environmentalists.
• Sheep meat is not eaten by many nations in the world.
• NZ sheep population dropped from 70 million in the 1980s to 47 million today. It is not likely to increase rapidly in the near future.
  

Sheep senses

Sheep using all their senses to check out a threat - man and dog

Sight

• Sheep have generally very good vision.
• The position of their eye allows for wide peripheral vision as they can span some 145 with each eye.
• Binocular vision is much narrower - 40 wide. They have no vision 2-3cm immediately in front of the nose.
• After locating a threat in their peripheral vision, they turn to examine it with binocular vision.
• They have a blind spot at the rear around 70 which is wider than the cow and is useful when catching sheep.
• Sheep tracks are never straight as sheep continually turn to watch behind them.
• They have colour vision but it's not as well developed as in humans.
• They often react in fear to novel colours that they're not used to, e.g. yellow raingear.
• Sheep remember flock mates for very long periods (years) after separation.
  

Smell

• Sheep have a good sense of smell and will not eat mouldy or musty feed.
• Smell is a major factor in rams locating ewes in heat.
• Smell is also vital in lamb identification by the dam associated with sight recognition.
• Sheep are very sensitive to predator smells.

Hearing

• Sheep have acute hearing and they can direct their ears to the direction of the sound.

Social order

'Flocking and follower' behaviour used in mustering sheep
Note the heading dog behind the mob allowing them to move quietly along the tracks

• Sheep are the classical social "flocking" animal and are a "follower species".
• They use the flock for a defence against predators - running away a short distance to form a flock and then turning round to face the predator. On closer approach by the threat, they scatter and regroup.
• Social ranking is not as obvious in sheep as in other species. Normally you'll see very few confrontations among ewes without young lambs to fight over.
• Sheep work out a social order by head butting, nudging, poking with horns, shoulder pushing, blocking and mounting. This is seen most clearly in horned rams (American wild mountain sheep) that back off then charge, meeting head to head with a large bang.
  
• Horned and polled rams should not be mixed as the horned rams will break the others' neck.
• Submissive behaviours in sheep include lowering of the head and neck and moving away with a head shake.
• In wild sheep a dominant ram leads a small flock followed by females, juveniles and lambs. He establishes this as a harem of about a dozen ewes.
• Rams can form harems in farmed flocks in large hill country paddocks where they can easily get separated from main flock. Regular mustering is needed to prevent this.
• In wild sheep, a lamb will stay with its dam till the next lamb is born. Both sexes will stay in their family groups till the adolescent males take off.
• In farmed flocks you don't see much evidence of social order, as regular mustering and movement prevent much of it.
• In groups of rams, especially Merinos in hot climates with no shade, they stand in a tight pack creating shade for each other.
  
• The Merino packs especially tightly when being handled and once in a tight circular mob, you have to get a leader to spin off somewhere and act as leader to get some movement.
  
• This leader sheep is not of high social rank - it's the first one who thinks they can escape. Pressure from barking dogs just makes the pack tighter, and if you are in the middle of this crush, you can feel the physical pressure that can lead to a smother.
• Merinos need room to move and hate hassle. They have different behaviour to other farmed breeds.
• Lambs are noted for their play behaviour - "follow the leader" and "king of the castle". It's said to be an indication of intelligence level and using this behaviour, sheep would rank higher than any other ungulate.
  

A wonderful example of sheep as a 'follower species'. It's easy in a round sale ring to keep sheep circling following each other to show them to buyers. Notice the shepherds are going against the flow of the sheep, so the sheep think they are escaping away from danger.
(Photo by kind permission of Helen Brown)

Feeding

• Sheep are ruminants and they start nibbling pasture from about a week old. They are efficient ruminants by about a month old.
• Sheep can graze more closely than cattle as they have a split upper lip.
• They graze for about 8-9 hours/day, which can extend to 13 hours when feed is short.
• Grazing bouts (when feed is plentiful) are about 20 -90 minutes, and they can have as many as 9 of them in 24 hours.
  
• After a grazing bout they have spells of 45-90 minutes of rumination and rest.
• In open range sheep have preferred areas and stick to these. This is seen in the UK "hefting" system in unfenced mountain grazings.
  
• A major concern in the UK Foot and Mouth disaster was how to replace these sheep after slaughter as they would have to learn this behaviour all again.
• Mixed grazing by cattle and sheep is ideal to maintain a good close pasture, and sheep adapt to this without any behavioural problems.
• The condition of a sheep's teeth is critical, and can have a big effect on behaviour.
• Sheep learn from their mothers which feed to eat. South Island sheep will eat grain and hay as they learn from their mothers in spring. North Island sheep will generally not eat grain or hay as they are never offered it, except in serious feed shortages such as droughts.
• It often takes 2-3 weeks for sheep to learn as mature animals, and some may never accept supplementary feed and starve. Sheep also learn to eat different feeds from other adults or their peers.
• Sheep store surplus energy as fat inside the body cavity (e.g. kidney fat and around the intestines) and under the skin. They use this up during late pregnancy and lactation for lamb growth and milk production.
• About 3-4 weeks before mating ewes are given extra feed to encourage extra eggs to be shed from the ovary, ending in more lambs produced. This is called "flushing".
• Sheep kept indoors show stress by eating the wood of their pens and they will also eat their wool, or the wool of the sheep in the next pen.
• This wool eating is seen is sheep that have been buried in deep snow for up to three weeks.
• Sheep need water - about 4litres/day/adult sheep and 1 litre/day for a lamb. But they can adapt to severe drought conditions and extract enough moisture to survive from herbage. The Australian outback Merino shows this important behavioural trait best.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Goats Part 1

GOAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Goats & man: Senses: Social behaviour

By Dr Clive Dalton

Goats are not like sheep

Milking goats soon adapt their grazing and herding behaviour to the
timing and routine of twice-a-day milking

• The first thing to accept is that goats are very different from sheep in their behaviour, and we sometimes forget this when trying to handle them.
  
• The goat is found on all the continents of the world, and is one of man's most important animals as more people in the world eat goat meat than eat sheep meat.
• Goat remains 10,000 years old (or of their early ancestors) have been found in central and West Iran, and domestic goats existed in other parts of the world for 8,000 years.
  
• Some authorities suggest that goats were companion animals long before dogs. The goat has also caused many of the world's deserts through man's ignorance and stupidity resulting in over grazing.
• The goat was domesticated early along with sheep and adapted well to man's nomadic lifestyle as well as in established farming.
• Goats are a different species to sheep with different numbers of chromosomes (sheep 27 pairs and goat 30 pairs). Hybrids between them are often reported (Geeps or Shoats) but are not viable and don't breed.

Products from goats:

• Meat - called Chevon
• Dairy produce - milk, cheese, yoghurt
• Skins
• Fibre - mohair, cashmere, cashgora (Cashmere x Angora), and beard hair.
• In some cultures they are sacrificed for religious reasons.
  
• Companions and pets.
  

Goat senses

Sight

• Sight is very similar to sheep (see sheep)
• Goats have a similar blind spot at their rear, but they are more difficult to catch using this area as they are generally more alert than sheep and are not blinded by wool on the head and around the eyes.
• They can distinguish different colours - responding best to orange and worst to blue.
  

Hearing

• Goats are very sensitive to a range of sounds from the high pitched squeals of kids to low pitched snorts or foot stamping on the ground.
• They have an ability to move their ears to locate the source of sound.
  

Smell

• Being browsers and highly selective grazers, goats have a keen sense of smell which aids in diet selection.
• Goats will not eat mouldy or musty feed, and generally avoid poisonous plants unless they are wilted and then are more palatable.

Peg Dewes knows that goats are not like sheep
and expects to be accosted & have her jacket chewed & tasted

Social behaviour

• Goats are a flocking species but they don't flock as tightly as sheep.
  
• Feral goats are hard to muster as individuals (especially males) keep breaking back and prefer to escape rather than herd with the mob.
  
• Sheep stick with the mob for safety unlike goats that seem to more keen to take a chance on their own.
  
• Goats will herd together better when you get them off their home range. It's a good idea to have some sheep in the goat mob to encourage flocking during mustering.
• Goats are a "lying-out" species like cattle and deer which is a big contrast to sheep.
• Males join harems of females in autumn and feral bucks will travel up to 20km to find does. But the rest of the year they are in bachelor groups or live as solitary males. They sort out a social order in these groups by bunting and horn wrestling.
• So most of the year, an alpha female leads a small family group of females suckling their current kids, with any previous adolescent females still in the group. A dam may suckle a kid till the next one is born.
• Younger members of the family or tribe are submissive to higher-ranking females.
• As most feral goats in NZ have horns, they use these along with head butts to sort out their social status.
• In farmed milking goats, you see them bunting and biting each other in the milking bail to sort out their differences, especially in competition for any feed supplements.
• At mating the buck is the harem leader and fights off any on-comers. These may be younger lower-ranking males in the group waiting for an opportunity, but the old buck is the boss and does the mating.
• Mature bucks sort themselves out by serious head butting, rising on their hind legs to attack with horns and heads. They also use their horns to side-rake their opponents
  

Climbing and digging

Goats will dig holes to get through below fences

• Goats are remarkable in their ability to climb and can move safely along narrow mountain paths to graze among the rocks.
• You often see a roadside goat standing on the ridge of their A-framed shelter.
• The contrast between goats and sheep is best seen at school pet days, where the goat kids are tested in extra exercises like climbing and walking over a see saw which would be a much greater challenge to a lamb.
• This ability can be a problem in farming, as goats will climb fence stays to jump over. So electric fencing is necessary to run goats, especially at the high stocking rates needed to make them eat weeds.
• Goats will also dig holes below fences to escape. They also like to dig areas to lie in and enjoy the sun's warmth in winter. They do this especially on North facing slopes which then start eroding.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Horse Part 1

HORSE BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Domestication: Senses: Teeth problems

By Dr Clive Dalton

Horse origins

• The ancient ancestors of the horse were small many-toed animals that then evolved one toe to became a hoof. Two million years ago the horse developed into Equus species in North America from which it spread to the old world and South America across the land bridges.
  
• Then there was more general migration and diversification, They developed into a very mobile animal that uses speed, bucking and kicking to escape predators. The horse is a panic species!
• Of the 5 main domestic animal species, the horse was the last to be domesticated. It is least affected by human manipulation and artificial selection.
  
• The horse was first used by man for food, then transport, riding for military use, then for draft power and transport, and finally for recreational riding which is a major use today.
  
• It was thought that Mongolian tribes were first to domesticate the horse and by 1500 BC different types of horse were evolving.
  
• The problem was to find out where this happened. Research in 2009 has confirmed that the Botai culture in Kazakhstan were using horses for for transport and milking them between 3700BC and 3100BC.
  
• Prezewalski horses are still found in that area as the last survivor of the early horse.
  

Uses


The horse still provides a range of services for humans:

• Transport - they carry people in both war and peace.
• Power - they pull loads and farm implements.
• Meat - horse flesh is popular in many cultures.
• Milk. Mares milk still supports families in some cultures.
• Hides and skins are still valuable.
• Hair from mains and tails is still in demand.
• Entertainment - racing and betting.
• Sport and competition.
  
• Ceremonial uses.
  
• The pleasure in ownership of a noble animal for leisure.
  

Horse senses

Sight

• The horse has keen sensory perception developed from its evolution and it has one of the largest eyes of any modern animal.
• It has a special light intensifying device which reflects light back on to the retina, giving good vision in poor light. In the wild horses are active at dawn and dusk.
• The eye structure allows it to see the slightest movement so will panic easily by something on the periphery of its vision.
• Having binocular vision in front of 60-70 means the horse needs to move the head to see where it is going. It can only focus fully for a short distance ahead - about 2m.
• This is a problem in jumping - it focuses then must remember and trust its memory about the object it has seen.
• Horses have a wide monocular (panoramic) view of the horizon and can see about 340-360 around it.
• As the eyes are on the sides of its head, the horse does not normally see objects in depth. It sees them like we do with one eye closed. It sees them with less detail than humans but is more sensitive to movement.
• The eyes are perfectly placed for cropping pasture, which it does this for half its life!
• The horse's visual area is more towards the ground than the sky but it can raise its head quickly and focus on objects at various distances away.
• Colour vision is still debated. Some work shows the horse can see colour starting from yellow, green, blue and red in that order.
• A horse needs time to adjust vision between light and dark which is worth remembering when loading horses from bright light into dark transport vehicles.
• The horse has a blind spot behind its head which increases when the head is lifted. So it's important to allow the horse to move its head to see objects in its way.
• Horses are generally reluctant to enter dark enclosures but quieten down when in there and feel safe looking out into the light. Horses can often be blindfolded to quieten them.
• Don't look a strange horse in the eye as it's a threatening pose.
• A horse will go in the direction it is looking so point it correctly.
  

Hearing

• Horses have a broader range of hearing than humans and can hear up to 25,000 cycles per second (cps) and have acute hearing in the high and low frequencies.
• Humans have noticed horses' early response to earthquake vibrations.
• Horses have 16 muscles that control the ears which they can swivel 180 degrees.
• When ears laid fully back this cuts their hearing severely.
• Horses are alert at all times except in deep sleep which only occurs in very short spells.
  

Smell

• Smell is well developed in the horse and this is why wild horses are difficult to stalk except upwind.
• The horse has a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) and the Flehmen response is very obvious in stallions sniffing mares on heat.
• Horses meet nose to nose and smell each other.
• They are very sensitive to smells in their environment, e.g. dung, dirty troughs, musty feed, bad water and certain plants.
  
• Smell is very important in feed selection.
  

Taste

• Horses are attracted by sweetness and sugar so molasses, water melon rind, peaches and beer are all relished.
• They (especially foals) reject salty, sour and bitter tastes at about the same level of acceptance as humans.
  

Touch

• Touch is one of the most acutely developed senses in the horse.
• They can sense a fly landing on any part of their body through their coat and flick it off.
• Horses are "inter-pressure" so when you apply pressure and move into the horse you will get reverse response.
• Horses push and barge each other in physical contact to communicate. You see this in mares and foals interacting.
• Horses respond to touch all over the body but especially around the head so ears and eyes are especially sensitive areas. They don't like their ears pulled.
• The upper lip and muzzle are very sensitive to tactile stimulus, and are equivalent to our fingers.
• The whiskers that grow from the muzzle and around the eyes in the horse are like an insect's antennae. They are especially useful in low light conditions when the horse is nosing around. You should not cut them off!
• Touch plays a major role in their social life and riders use it to signal intentions to the horse.
• So when leading a horse - be positive.
• Horses have a "point of balance" as described for cattle behind shoulder and in centre of head.
  

Memory

• Horses have very good long-term memory which is useful for an animal that grazes over a large territory.
• It can be seen when a horse will remember a place where it got a fright and will continually shy at that place for years afterwards.
• But its memory can be variable and reinforcement in training is important.
• A horse will learn nothing when under stress - as the survival urge will blank out memory.

Swimming

• Horses are strong swimmers when forced to enter deep water.
• They swim with a dog-paddle action.
• In training there is no problem for a fit horse to swim around a pool for 30 minutes.
  

Problems with teeth

• Cheek teeth in the horse may become unevenly worn so they don't grind feed efficiently and can cause ulcers on the tongue.
• The signs of this include dropping feed from the mouth while chewing, bulging of the cheeks caused by wads of food becoming impacted between the teeth and cheek, and/or green staining around the mouth caused by drooling of saliva.
• Overgrown edges on cheek teeth are common in elderly ponies and horses.
• Treatment is by rasping the sharp edges and it takes a trained person like a veterinarian or a horse dentist to do this effectively.
• To prevent problems, it's wise to have the cheek teeth of ponies and horses rasped regularly, perhaps once a year or so by a veterinarian or horse dentist.
• Periodontal disease can affect cheek teeth. It's caused by infections of the gum and supporting structures around the cheek-teeth roots.
  
• In severe cases the bone becomes swollen and sore, then the animal is reluctant to chew its feed and it gets thin.
• If you suspect any problems, veterinary care is needed to avoid behavioural and welfare problems.