Breeding sheep to eliminate dags and worms. 1.

By Dr Clive Dalton

PART 1


Introduction

• Farmers used genetics to improve fertility in their commercial sheep flocks in the 1970s - 1980s, and this greatly improved income.
  
• But with recent inflation and currency fluctuations, they realise that more lambs are not all profit.
  
• Rising costs, especially for animal health are now a major issue, but veterinary science has not come up with ways to reduce these; so-called progress seems to be to use more!

Dagging and drenching

• These are the two main killers in terms of cost and physical effort, as sheep farmers’ average age is now creeping up towards 60, with fewer young people entering the industry, or who want to spend their time wrestling with today’s 80kg sheep.
• Many sheep farmers have back, hip and knee problems from hauling sheep around, and the veterinary profession are only offering more drug and chemical therapy as future solutions, which will not reduce costs.
• This approach is not sustainable – neither economically nor for the environment.
  
• So the obvious conclusion is that we have to stop, (or at least greatly reduce), dagging and drenching sheep.
  
• If you don’t agree, and are happy to get the handpiece out to clean up sheep like the one below, then don’t read further.

What a prospect to have to clean up this sheep's rear end!

Major mind change needed

Sheep are never keen to cooperate

• Dagging (to prevent blowfly) and drenching (to kill worms) have always been accepted as part of sheep husbandry.
• So has crutching, most of which is done to prevent dags forming.
• You never see these chores featured in a shepherd’s job description: they are taken for granted.
• If the boss had no jobs planned, then he/she could always find some dagging or drenching to do to keep staff active and give the dogs a run!

This advert in a 1970 New Zealand Farmer was certainly convincing.
Back then, nobody thought about long-term implications of the
new wonder chemicals!

Breeding is the solution

• Breeding is the way to get rid of the endless chore of dagging and drenching, which inevitably is followed by more dagging and drenching.
• The chemicals used in drenches cannot be sustainable, and consumers will start to demand ‘drug-free’ products for their health and welfare.
• Genetic gains are cost effective and they are not lost.
• But breeding as a solution has been hard to get through to farmers, as since the modern anthelmintics came on the market in the 1960s, farmers have been bombarded by myths and untruths.
  

Myths & untruths

A typical range of anthelmintic chemotherapy products on the market.
Sold in bright coloured packs with regular promotional specials.

• Breeding is too slow. Breeding for Facial Eczema (FE) resistance for example took nearly 30 years. True but there are reasons – see below.
• Drench is faster, and with the new products on the market that kill everything, the problem of drench resistance has been solved. Not true.
• Vets who sell drench hardly ever mention genetics to their clients. If they do, it’s always as a last resort. Drench sales are a significant part of vets' income and the more they sell the bigger markup they can negotiate from the manufacturer supplying them.
  
• Genetics doesn’t seem to figure strongly in their university training, and in any case they don’t sell rams from their clinics!
• If you start a breeding programme, you’ll be buried in paper and will need a computer. Not true.
  

Breeding for FE resistance – why it took so long?

Hogget with FE which is clearly suffering pain and distress.
It also cannot see as its eye lids are swollen up.

There were plenty of reasons:

• The sporidesmin toxin harvested from the fungus was so horrendously expensive that stud breeders could only afford to dose a few of their rams.
• It’s a very dangerous poison and has to be handled carefully by veterinarians, and if not done correctly valuable animals can be killed.
• Farmers couldn’t afford to drench any females, so halving the overall ‘Selection Differential’ (selection pressure) and slowing up genetic gain, despite the trait being highly heritable (about 25% or the same as fleece weight).
• Selection on the ewe side had to rely on ‘natural challenge’ to the toxin, which varied greatly between seasons.
• Commercial sheep farmers only bought FE tested rams after a bad season, and expected instant solutions the next season. They didn’t have a policy of buying resistant rams every year.
• Farmers turned their purchased FE resistant rams out with their commercial ewes and expected to see rapid gains. This random mating approach could never bring rapid improvement.
• Because tested rams were expensive, farmers only bought one or two, when they should have bought a team of rams to bring about positive change.
• So, many stud breeders gave it away, as there was no profit in the business. Only the dedicated kept going to benefit their own flocks, which they certainly did. Now in bad years they hardly ever see a clinical case of FE.
• With today’s knowledge and technology, success could be achieved in a quarter of the time.
  

How did FE resistance work?

• Scientists worked hard to find out how resistant sheep could break down the toxin’s complex chemical structure in the liver, and get rid of it. It was a fascinating bit of detective work at Ruakura, which I don’t think was fully completed.
• In simple terms, the sheep’s immune system did the work, so breeders were actually selecting for sheep with better genetic immune systems.
• This is very interesting, as the pioneer breeders today (along with their ram buying clients), are finding their sheep don’t get grass staggers (another fungal toxin), and have fewer internal parasites as judged by less drench needed.
• So to select against dags and worms, we need to identify sheep with a high natural (genetic) immune system, and manage them to allow it to be fully expressed.
• It’s a simple objective and is really a repeat of breeding for FE tolerance, but in a very much shorter time.
  

Dags and worms – why fix them in this order?

• Because this is the order in which they cause pain to the farmer.
  
• With dagging you have to wrestle with sheep before staying bent over, to remove a worthless product. And then being in constant contact with faeces is also a health hazard.
• Even if you have modern sheep handling equipment, physical effort is still needed and costs didn’t disappear.
  
• Drenching is not so bad, as you stand upright but with no automatic drenchers invented yet, stretching and being bumped by sheep, and perhaps even being bitten are still hazards!
  

Are these traits inherited?

• Yes they are.
  
• The heritability of dags is around 25% and resistance to worms (also called host resistance) is around 23-25 %.
  
• You will see ‘resilience’ used which is where a sheep can live with worms and still keep performing.
  
• If this is a separate trait, (and scientists state that it is), we don’t want it as these sheep produce dags.
  
• We only want sheep that are Worm-Free and Dag-Free.

Are the traits linked?

• Technically, dags and worm resistance are separate traits so are not linked through common genes.
  
• But there are farmers who have cleaned up the dags in their flocks (measured in barrow loads), and are finding that worms, (measured by the number of drenches given) are very apparent.
  
• This may be entirely environmental and not genetic, but at this stage why worry – it’s saving work and money. So keep an open mind at this stage.

Breeding sheep to eliminate dags and worms. 2.

By Dr Clive Dalton

PART 2

Dag-Free & Worm-Free sheep – where to start?
Commercial sheep farmers have two options if they want to get rid or drastically reduce dags and worms:

Option1. Buy in the genetics (as rams) needed from established ‘stud breeders’.

Option 2. Start a breeding programme in their own flock, which includes breeding their own rams.

Option1. Buy genetics from stud breeders.

Stud rams at public sale. FEC data are rare and Dag information non existent.
All rams are drenched frequently before sale.

• Buying the genetics (as rams) from stud breeders seems the logical choice, as ‘stud breeders with registered flocks have been providing rams (and assumed genetic improvement) for commercial breeders since sheep farming began in New Zealand.
• They record masses of data through Sheep Improvement Ltd (SIL) database via a number of bureaus.
  
• But it’s often this mass of data that scares commercial buyers away. Stud breeders have all worked hard over many generations and none got rich from selling rams.
  
• Few commercial buyers appreciate the costs, dedication and work involved in stud breeding.
  

Selection indexes

SIL Ram selection front page listing all the Indexes
There are 5 indexes and 11 Breeding Values provided.

• The core of the SIL data provided to commercial farmers on the ‘ram selection list’ is in the ‘indexes’ and ‘sub indexes’, and there’s a range of them.
• Breeding Values (BVs) are first calculated for each trait using all the information on the animal and its relatives.
• They are then balanced up for varying genetic relationships between them and finally balanced for the relative economic value of each one. This is to achieve maximum overall gain expressed in cents.
  
• See SIL website for details.
• But geneticists never tell you how long it will take to see this overall and balanced improvement expressed in the index, in the bank account. Time is not built into the index – it cannot be.
• The old genetic principle is well known – ‘that the more traits you select for, the slower is the rate of progress in any individual one’.
• My concern is that today’s sheep farmers don’t have time to wait for these sophisticated indexes with all the various economic traits to bring about improved overall income, of which dags and worms are only a part.
• If you want to fix dags and worms on ‘Fast Track’ because they are killing you and your profits, you need to hit them hard, and not let the rest of the index components slow you down.

Ram selection list showing extensive data on each animal.
This regularly scares ram buyers so they end up picking rams on their looks.

Special concern over dags and worms
The obvious conclusion: Farmers need to get rid of dags and worms on fast track as there’s nothing more important on a sheep farm right now.

Using ‘Independent Culling Levels’

• We need to treat dags and worm resistance as ‘Independent Culling Levels’.
• This is where you select for each trait independently (as they are unrelated), and if an animal fails to reach the pass mark for one trait (whatever level you set the pass mark at), then it fails the whole exam.
  
• It’s like what the old School Certificate used to be – if you failed one critical subject like maths, no matter how good you were at the others – you failed the lot. It was tough.
• Using the index approach, excellence in one trait can compensate for failure in another. This is not good enough to get rid of both dags and worms quickly – which is urgent right now.
  

The BIG problem:
Finding SIL breeders with Dag-Free and Worm-Free sheep

• Very few SIL breeders have taken the option to select for host resistance to worms, and fewer still are selecting against dags to provide Breeding Values (BVs) for these traits.
  
• This is understandable, as their clients are not asking for such rams. The new drench chemicals have now come along as the ultimate solution.
• The BV for worm resistance (called WormFEC™) is based on a flexible protocol, (too flexible in my view) allowing great variation in FEC sampling times and methods, so accuracy for selection purposes has got to be a concern.
• For those with WormFEC™ BVs, not all the lamb crop is always put up for testing, and this is often not made clear. So the choice of rams for sale within a flock can be very limited.
• These BVs only apply within farms and not between them.
• It would be hard to find a stud breeder who had not drenched the sale rams for at least two months before your visit. This is the minimal period needed to get an honest drug-free assessment of how genetically daggy individuals are.
• Farmers are told by stud breeders, technical advisers and stock agents, that if they stop selecting rams for the main economic traits like fertility and growth (wool doesn’t worry them), then these traits will go backwards in their flock.
• This is NOT true; they’ll just stay where they are, until selection moves things ahead again. You’d be hard put to select against these traits to start and lose them.
• Ignoring the other main traits won’t drive you bankrupt for a couple of generations at least till you make a big dent in dags and worms.
  

Obvious conclusion: The choice of getting Dag-Free and Worm-Free rams from SIL breeders is very limited, so you need to look at starting a breeding programme in your own commercial flock.


Option 2. Start a breeding programme in your own flock.


What’s wrong with the idea?
Here’s some facts and fiction that you hear:

• Fiction: Breeding is too much work and you’ll be buried in paper, stuck in the office when you should be outside – presumably dagging and drenching! Not true.
• Fact: All you need to get started is some raddle and some tags (which may as well be numbered). Later on you may need to use your index finger!
• Fiction: The genetics in your flock are not good enough as stud breeders have all the superior genes. Not true. This is biologically impossible.
• Fact: If you’ve been buying rams from the same stud breeder for a number of years, you’ll have all the genes they have. Your flock will genetically be a couple of generations behind that stud.
  

The big positives

Sheep selected and bred on your farm will perform well on your farm.

• You’ll be identifying top genetics in your own farming environment, and that’s a massive advantage. There’s no worry over whether a stud’s sheep will ‘shift well’ and adapt to your farm and management.
• You don’t have to keep trying different studs in different areas to see which suits your environment. On your own farm – what you see is what you get, and you certainly can’t hide how much time and money has been spent on dagging and drench!
• Also, because of the large numbers of animals in a commercial flock, there is a mass of scope for selection and culling, which many smaller studs don’t have. A high proportion of the ram lambs born in many small studs have to be sold as sires to make money.
  

Breeding sheep to eliminate dags and worms. 6.

By Dr Clive Dalton

PART 6

Selecting male replacements from the A team nucleus

Remember the aim:

• To use the dams in the A team as mothers for future rams for use in the commercial flock, and also the best of them to be used as sires in the nucleus.

• The major drive through the males is to fast-track ‘Dag-Free and Worm-Free’ genes into the commercial flock.

Docking ram lambs

• Keep all the ram lambs entire from the A team ewes.
• Do NOT drench any ram lambs at docking - and this means both the A team and commercials.

Drenching lambs at docking - the very worst thing you can do!
Avoid this like the plague!

• At this stage, the lambs’ immunity is starting to develop and anthelmintic drenching will damage it. Vets will not agree but we don’t know enough about the complex immune system, and until we do, don’t drench.

• The only exception (and it would be rare indeed) would be a major animal health crisis, confirmed by a veterinarian.
• Mark all the ram lambs with ear-markers to cut a bit out of the ear or punch a hole. Use the opposite ear to the ewe lambs described earlier.
• If you have enough helpers, put a small plastic tag in them.

Tag lambs at docking if you have enough helpers

• Hopefully all the A team ram lambs will all be twins, but don’t worry about any singles in the mob.
  

Weaning ram lambs

• Do NOT drench any of them.
• Treat them as for the ewe lambs in Pathway 1.
  

Ram hoggets

• Give these hoggets a permanent ID (number and year born) with a reliable plastic tag if you didn’t do it at docking. They are now very valuable stock.
• Manage them the same as the ewe hoggets, except put a more selection pressure on them. A good starting target is to cull 80%, and end up with 20% for the final selection.
• Be very strict on what you keep, and get rid of any that don’t meet your standards.
• Every 2-3 weeks (a month is too long) after weaning, draft off any ‘tail-enders’ and if you think they need it, give these culls a conventional combination drench and mark them for sale.
• Don’t mix these drenched culls with the replacement ram hoggets.
  

Dag and worm status of ram hoggets
Repeat the programme described for the ewe hoggets. There is one big difference though – in autumn do check ALL the hoggets (see below).

March/April (autumn)

• As with the ewe hoggets, this is a good time to do an initial check of FEC/FCS to see how immunity is developing.
  
• But because of their lower numbers and the importance of keeping selection pressure high, take a sample from every animal.

May/June (mid winter)

• This is the ideal time to put even more selection pressure on these ram hoggets against dags and worms.
• They will have come through the autumn rise, and worm burdens are always high in winter.
• There are also more species of worms active at this time.
  

Key points again of the routine:

• Do a FEC on every ram hogget through a reliable laboratory. If you want to check the lab’s accuracy, split a few samples and send them in as separate animals. There should only be a discrepancy of a few hundred epg between samples.

Use a reliable laboratory with good quality control systems.
There should be good agreement between duplicate samples.

• Do a FCS at the same time as sampling for FEC, including the FCS score as part of the sample ID. See Part 8.
  
• This makes it easy to do the correction before making final decisions.
• Hoggets producing marbles need to be marked as the top group, followed by hand grenaders.
  
• Then anything below this with sloppy dungs need to be given a separate mark as potential culls, regardless of how low their FEC is.
• Keep the drench gun locked away unless there is a real worm blow-up (e.g. Barber’s pole) confirmed by your vet.
• Keep culling any animals showing ill thrift or that get daggy and don’t dry up quickly. Look for animals consistently passing marbles and hand grenades. Be ruthless on sloppy dung!
  

Live weight & fleece weight:

• If possible, record their live weight twice. First in May (winter) and then in August (spring).
• Ignore fleece weight as it’s highly correlated to body weight, but certainly cull any sheep with off-type fleeces.
  

Picking the top team

• Use this information to start sorting out a top team by adding the two live weights and put them in order from highest to lowest.
• Then put the FEC corrected for FCS alongside each animal.
• Now come down the list looking first for animals with Nil FEC then individuals with the highest combined weight.
  
• If you can’t achieve nil FEC then go for the next lowest figures e.g. under 50epg.
• See what the numbers look like, aiming to end up with around 20% of the original group to proceed to the two-tooth stage.
  
• Be more severe in you selection if you like.
  

Agreement between autumn and winter FECs

• It’s always interesting to see what agreement there is between the two FECs.
  
• We have to realise that the accuracy of FECs is prone to many variables, but it’s the best we have, and if you get your samples done at a reliable laboratory using a ‘High Dilution’ technique, then things are as good as you can get.
• If immunity is well developed, there should be good agreement (within a few hundred epgs) between each sampling time, but you have to be concerned if individual animals differ by thousands.
• When deciding which rams to use, go for those with consistent FECs first, but certainly accept any rams that were high in autumn but were low in winter.
  
• I’d be suspicious of any individuals that were the other way around.
• Remember how important the FCS is as a ram with low FEC but with high FCS is no good to you. In fact, you could give more emphasis on FCS than FEC!
• As well as these figures, use the visual health of the ram as an important guide too.
  

Tempting thought – use as ram hoggets

• Having seen how good these ram hoggets look, it would be tempting to use the very best of them as sires in the flock, and even in the A team.
  
• This would certainly speed up genetic gain by shortening the Generation Interval.
  
• But let’s not get carried away at this stage, and don’t make any decisions until the two-tooth stage to be absolutely sure that they don’t have any late-developing problems.
• Keep this in mind for the future when you have a lot more confidence in what you have achieved.
  

Two-tooth rams

Top two-tooth Romney rams selected for Facial Eczema tolerance and worm resistance

• Now the hoggets are two-tooths, they should look a picture, and if they don’t, review what you have done.
• Feeding is critical so make sure they are well fed and managed.
• Keep studying the selection list described above, and if you still want to reduce numbers, do another FEC and FCS on the very top ones as a reassurance that they are consistently dag free and resistant to worms.
  
• It’s probably not worth taking another live weight as there will be little variation between them by this stage.
  
• Be ruthless on structural soundness as there is always a few last-minute cases of footrot, scald or injuries, or maybe teeth that go wrong.
  

Which ones to use?

• The task is now to select a top two-tooth ram team to mate with the A team ewes. Make sure they all had nil (or near nil) FEC and FCS of 1 (marbles).
• Keep a second team of rams to mate to the flock ewes – again if possible with nil (or near nil) FEC corrected for FCS.
• At this stage, don’t get carried away about individual rams.
  
• Think of using them as a ‘fast-track team’ on the commercial flock to get rid of dags and worms. They'll be a lot more effective than the handpiece!
  
• If there was one outstanding individual among them, then single-sire mate him to 100 ewes in the main flock, but be careful as he may be a fluke!
  
• Better to use the team approach at this stage when a rapid change is needed from a low starting point.
  

An Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding - Background and contents - 2009

Agriculture, farming, animal production, animal breeding, genetics, livestock improvement, basic biology, Mendelism, genetic theory, population genetics, practical application of theory, breeding, selection decisions, breeding methods, breeding practice, breeds, breed structure, cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, New Zealand).

An Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding

By D. C. Dalton (1980)

Granada.
ISBN 0-246-11194-1 Hardback
ISBN 0-246-11351-0 Paperback

2009 Background comments to book
As a student in the early 1950s at King’s College, University of Durham in Newcastle upon Tyne in UK, I developed a great interest in animal breeding. Those were the days of text books which we students revered, and they were relevant for decades.

I also worshipped my Kiwi Prof, M.M (Mac) Cooper who did more for practical animal breeding in UK than anyone before or since. After my PhD in sheep breeding in North Wales, I went on to teach animal production at Leeds University and do breeding research with laboratory mice. Farm animals were not available which had many advantages in terms of quick turnover of generations.

So by this stage I had seen every textbook on the subject and had ‘tried’ to read them all. They would have made a stack about a metre high and the vast majority of them although editorial masterpieces were terrible to read.

They all started off saying the book was designed for students, and some would even add farmers to the intended audience. All went well for the first chapter or maybe two, until you hit Mendel and his peas.

Then soon after this, you hit algebra and calculus, and that was the end for most folk who were desperate to know what to do after you had the sheep into the pens, or the cows in the yard. Then what?

How did you sort out the best ones for breeding and the worst for culling? Students rarely got to this point, and even if they did, they were so switched off by Mendel and algebra that they gave it all away.

Lecturers killed animal breeding for most students. Having suffered the pain of listening to hours of this as a student, and being very conscious of the pain I inflicted on my students when covering the syllabus to get them to pass exams, frustration motivated me to try to keep things simple.

When I moved into animal breeding research in New Zealand, I really enjoyed the relief of not having to bore students to death any more with genetics and animal breeding. It was over- so I thought.

Then as our research developed, we had regular groups of farmers and university students coming to the research station to see what was going on, and asking not just the ‘what’ questions, but the more important ‘why’ ones too.

We initiated large scale breeding schemes with 280,000 sheep and 16,000 beef cattle where the staff involved wanted to know the background theory to the programmes.

So I was back in the business of explaining genetics and animal breeding all over again -but this time, the ‘students’ couldn’t get enough of the subject, and drove us to exhaustion with their searching questions. It was an incredibly rewarding time.

So this book really came from those years. It was written in 1980 and a lot has changed since them in the high-tech end of genetics, and with computers having so much more power to analyse massive amounts of field data. But not much has changed down at the sheep and cattle yards where we are still looking for the best stock, and deciding what to mate them to, to bring about improvement. The book became a recognised text book in English speaking countries and was translated into Japanese and Spanish.

When my first and second edition ran out, Malcolm Willis from Newcastle University in UK produced a third edition in 1991 under the title of ‘Dalton’s Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding’. Publisher: Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-03126-3.

Book Contents Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements Part I The Traits in Farm Animals Man and his animals Traits: a general comment Reproduction - Birth traits and survival - Maternal ability - Lactation Growth and development The carcass – Wool production - Draught and speed – Physical features - Learning ability - Temperament - Poultry meat and egg production Summary Part II Basic Biology and Mendelism Basic biology Body cells and germ cells - Chromosomes and sex - Changes in the number of chromosomes - Changes within one chromosome. Mendel's genetics: Mendelism Technical language of Mendelism The naming of genes Mendel's mathematics and more terminology Mendel's ratios – Lethal genes - Linkage and crossing over - Sex linkage - Chromosome mapping - Mutations How many genes concern breeders? The action of the genes: how they work - Pleiotropy – Gene interaction - Different types of dominance - Epistasis Heredity and environment Part III Population Genetics, Selection and Breeding The complexity of traits in farm animals The bridge between Mendelism and population genetics Population genetics: variation Variation: how to describe it? - Other shaped curves – The challenge: to improve the mean - Where to start? – Comparison between populations Selection Artificial and natural selection - Culling Genetic progress: what controls it? Heritability - Selection differential- Generation interval -Genetic gain Measuring genetic improvement Controls - Repeat matings Selection limits Preservation of genetic variation Breeding value and aids to selection Individual or mass selection (performance testing) – Lifetime performance records - Pedigree information – Progeny performance (progeny testing) - Performance of other relatives (family selection) - Combination of selection aids – Selection methods - Relationships between traits - Traditional relationships between traits - Different types of correlations Breeding and the environment Maternal environment Breeding methods Inbreeding - Outbreeding - Crossbreeding - What to do afer the first cross (F1) - Outcrossing - Backcrossing - Top crossing and grading up - Mating likes - Mating unlikes Hybrids and heterosis Hybrid vigour in farm livestock - Combining ability: general and specific Part IV Breeding in Practice Practical breeding plans Identification - Dairy cattle breeding - Beef cattle breeding - Dual-purpose cattle breeding - Sheep breeding - Dual-purpose sheep breeding - Pig breeding - Poultry breeding Breeds and breed structure Breed associations - Livestock shows -Co-operative breeding schemes - Artificial insemination and ovum transfer - Tests and trials - Randomisation - Pre-test environmental problems - Correction factors - Costs and benefits of genetic improvement References Appendix I The coefficient of inbreeding Appendix I1 Random numbers Glossary
Index

Drench resistant worms in sheep - breeding worm-resistant sheep

Sheep, farming, husbandry, disease, animal health, worms, internal parasites, breeding, breeding for resistance
By Dr Clive Dalton

Breeding - the only solution

Question: How come in the same flock, some sheep
are always clean and others always dirty?

Increasing numbers of farmers are starting to accept that breeding sheep, that are genetically resistant to internal parasites is the only way towards a sustainable future.

The precedent was set 30 years ago, when a pioneering group of breeders started to select sheep resistant to Facial Eczema (FE). It’s been enormously successful, and shows that if you have a clear aim, and you can keep the programme simple, it will bring results.

• Whatever are the rights or wrongs of past drenching practices, we have got to make an aggressive start to breed sheep resistant to worms. For some, this is now an urgent priority.
• It’s sobering to think that over the last 100 years in New Zealand when trouble arose, there was always a quick escape to grab what was needed through outcrossing to a new breed.
• For example we used Finnsheep to fix low fertility, different breeds provided scope to change wool types, and different meat breeds were used to meet market changes. New Zealand’s sheep history right up to the present shows how sheep importations and outcrosses were used as quick-fixes to change genetics.
• But when drench resistance really takes hold, where do we go? There is no readily-available outside genepool that is going to work this time. Countries like Australia, United Kingdom and South Africa have serious drench resistance too so it’s no good rushing there for solutions. They could be heading here for help.
  

Commercial sheep farmers have two clear options.

1. They can either buy in the genetics they need from the current industry’s stud breeders who have been selecting for host resistance, or
2. If these sheep are not available, they will have to breed their own. Those farmers with severe FE were forced to breed their own.
   

There’s no time to wait
Farmers in tough times cannot wait around for slow changes to take place in the stud industry. Predictions are that some farmers may only have 2-5 years left before most drenches will fail on their properties.

These implications are massive for the stud industry, and could cause as big a revolution in sheep breeding as Group Breeding Schemes did in the 1960s and 1970s. We could be heading for interesting times again with the ghosts of many old scientists rising from their graves to join in!

Genetic improvement works

• Enough work has been done already by AgResearch and a few top breeders to confirm that breeding host-resistant sheep works, while recognising that it takes a long time to get there - around 20 years to reduce FEC by 50%.
• Hopefully, genetic technology will speed this up in future (depending on cost which is never mentioned).
• If you delay making a decision and do nothing, expect problems, as remember resilience is weakly inherited (5-15%), whereas drench resistance in the worms has reasonably high heritability (23-25%).
• So if you do nothing the parasites will become drench resistant faster than you can improve resilience. But much more work needs to be done on the genetics of these traits as heritability estimates can jump around a lot and are not set in concrete.
• Clearly the aim is to improve host resistance to worms and not just resilience, but initially both of these will be happening at the same time and you won’t know how much of each.
• Don’t worry, as FEC/FCS will help identify animals that have developed host resistance in the long term.
  

Challenge to the stud industry

Stud breeders annual sale - how many can
offer you guaranteed dag-free and worm resistant genes?

• It would be nice if commercial farmers could simply ring up a SIL breeder and order all the rams they need to fix any approaching drench resistance crisis. (SIL stands for Sheep Improvement Ltd).
• Well they can’t, because at present not enough SIL breeders have rams available that have been tested. You can’t blame the SIL breeders as they have not been asked for them and demand creates supply.
• A big change is needed and fast but don’t hold your breath.
• So commercial farmers in trouble need to give serious consideration to starting a simple flock improvement programme including keeping their own rams.
  

A programme to think about

• I’ve set out below a breeding plan. You’ll have to decide if it’s an option for your farm and if you are prepared to accept the challenge!
• Don’t go into it half-heartedly as you’ll end up with a shambles and there will be plenty to say “I told you so”. It needs your full commitment.
• Key point: If you are a commercial farmer with a decent-sized flock and cannot buy the rams you want that are dag free and with proven host resistance to worms, then you cannot afford to wait around for stud breeders to respond to your needs. Get started!
  

Getting started

• It might be a good idea to take a few deep breaths before reading on –as there’s a fair chance you may get lost on the way through.
• Go through it slowly with your own flock in mind, and remember what the aims are in each part. Maybe don’t read all the parts in one go?
• Remember the overall aim – to breed sheep with a high natural (genetic) immunity to internal parasites. Keep remembering this if you get lost in the detail and lose track of what’s going on.
  

Two clear challenges

• The following breeding programme will bring results in commercial flocks of around 1000 – 1500 ewes.
• It probably would not be worth starting with fewer than 500 ewes because of the intense selection needed.
• But you may like to try it with a small flock and see how you get on. The challenge is twofold:

1. To keep the job simple and above all avoid getting bogged down in paper records.
2. To keep costs down to a bare minimum.
   

Genetic theory
The genetic theory behind the breeding plan is notnew. It was used by Thomas Bakewell in the 1700s to improve English Longhorn cattle and Leicester sheep, so it has been tested!
As students we were sick of hearing about him.

His painting showed a little fat man wearing a black hat, with a pigtail and fancy jacket sitting on a little fat pony.

I bet he never dreamed we’d still be using his simple principle of ‘breeding the best to the best’. The job is to sort out what is the best. So let’s start.

Four pathways
There are four ‘genetic pathways’ to flock improvement. Below is not the way these paths are usually listed, but this order is for a sheep flock starting at scanning in mid pregnancy. Here they are:

• PATHWAY 1: Selecting females to breed females
• PATHWAY 2: Selecting females to breed males
• PATHWAY 3: Selecting males to breed females
• PATHWAY 4: Selecting males to breed males
  

So start in mid pregnancy, but if this is not convenient, don’t worry – just dive in where you can. The key point is – make a start somewhere!

PATHWAY 1: Selecting females to breed females

Ewes in mid pregnancy

• Start by scanning the flock to identify (ID) the twin-bearers. Run them separately and feed them well.
• Do NOT drench any ewes in the flock from now on. Avoid any long-acting drenches like the plague!
• Lamb these twin-scanners separately and give them any extra care you can afford at lambing.
• Cull any that ‘pack up’ between scanning and lambing, that grow dags, or have any lambing or health problems. Be ruthless and if in doubt – throw it out!
• If you are ‘easy-care’ lambing – then don’t go near them.
• This is the start of the journey, as out of these twin-scanned ewes you’ll be continually selecting the very best for commercial traits that keep you in business.
  

At docking

• Do NOT drench any lambs on the farm at docking – and this means in the entire flock unless you have an animal welfare crisis.
• Do NOT drench any ewes on the farm at docking either.
• The twin-scanned ewes. Dock their lambs separately and mark all the ewe lambs (Use ear-markers to cut a bit out of the ear or punch a hole).
• Mark any twin-scanners for culling that are wet/dry or have any other problems that you don’t like. Be ruthless!
• If the twin-scanners go back with the main flock (or in case of escapes), identify them with a temporary mark that will last till weaning, or better still, give them a permanent ID with a small cheap plastic tag.
• This cost of this small tag (and not a big one) is justified at this stage and then your past work is protected.
  

At weaning

• Plan to keep many more ewe lamb replacements than normal, as you are going to put intense ‘selection pressure’ on them (i.e. cull heavily).
• As a target, plan to cull around 30% of these lambs – but this will depend on the final numbers you’ll need.
• Do not drench any ewe lambs wanted for replacements.
• The ewe lambs from the twin-scanners will have been earmarked at docking, and will be the core of your future replacements.
• Hopefully you’ll get all the replacements needed from the twin-scanners and will not need to go too deeply into the non-twin-scanners to make up numbers. But this will depend on twinning rate and the season.
• Any lambs for sale from the remainder of the flock can be drenched with a conventional combination drench if they look wormy, and if you think it will improve their sale prospects. If the bidding stalls at the sale tell the auctioneer that they’re ‘newly-drenched and they’ll shift well’!
• Before sale and after conventional drenching, run these sale lambs separately from the replacement ewe lambs. You don’t want any cross-contamination between worms.
• If you see tapeworms in any lambs, ignore them and do not drench unless you are sure they are doing harm. Use a drench specific to tapes.
  
• Be especially vigilant to mark for culling any ewes and lambs anywhere in the flock that have any physical defects.
• At this stage the lambs are starting to develop their natural immunity so there will be great variation in the number of daggy backsides you’ll see. Some may go through a daggy stage and then permanently dry up.
• So make your final decision in the autumn when they are hoggets (see below) and they have had more time to show early immune development.
• Pay special attention to the twin-scanned ewes at weaning and their replacement ewe lambs. Cull any that fail to meet your standards. Be ruthless, especially on dirty backsides.
• f you didn’t tag the twin-scanned ewes at docking, then make sure you give them a good permanent ID now. You cannot afford to lose them now as they are going to be the core of an ‘elite’ flock (see Pathway 2).
  

Ewe Hoggets

• When these weaned ewe lambs are hoggets, go through them every 2-3 weeks (a month is too long) and draft off the ‘tail-enders’ that have not measured up for culling.
• Pay special attention to those that have been frequently daggy and get rid of them.
• If you think they need it, give the tail-enders a conventional combination drench and finish them for sale. Again tell the auctioneer the good news about them having just been drenched!
• Before sale and after drenching, don’t mix them with the replacement ewe hoggets. The drench status will have to go on the ASD form if they are within the withholding period for the product.
  

Take a moment
Now take a moment and evaluate how far you have come from weaning, and guard against the urge to conventionally drench the hoggets. What the hoggets look like will be a early sign of any progress made towards resilience and/or host resistance.

• Satisfy your curiosity and boost your faith in the exercise so far, by doing a FEC from each of 10 different (fresh) heaps of dropping in the paddock. Remember to correct these for FCS.
• Discuss the results with your veterinarian provided that they are up with the play on recent developments, and that drench sales are not the main priority.
• Use a trigger level of 500 epg to see how things are going, and conclude that fewer than 500 is resistant and above 500 could be anything, resistant or resilient or a bit of both. You don’t want them.
• But remember to look at the animals in light of these trigger levels.
• Be strong and guard against the urge to drench these hoggets by the calendar or because the dogs need a run!
• Mid winter (May-June) is an ideal time to start putting even more selection pressure on these replacement hoggets. Cull heavily any that fail to meet your standards – and especially any with dirty backsides.
• Buy, borrow or share some scales and weigh the hoggets to decide a cut-off (cull) weight in the light of how many you need to go into the flock. Find the range by weighing a few of the smallest and a few of the biggest, and then decide a cut-off ‘target’ weight.
• Keep on being ruthless and cull any hoggets that are even slightly daggy, lame, or have any other physical defects you don’t want in the flock. Be ruthless.
• It would be a great idea to go through the hoggets with the faecal probe and identify those with FCS of 1 (marbles) and 2 (hand grenades) – or mark for culling any with clearly soft faeces (3,4 and 5) to get rid of any with genes for dags.
• Keep the drench gun locked away unless there is a worm blow-up (e.g. Barber’s pole) and animal welfare is compromised.
• After all the work you’ve put in so far, it’s time to put a reliable permanent tag in them showing individual number and year born. They are now your most valuable animals – and you had better believe it!
  

Hogget shearing

• In the past it would have been worthwhile weighing the wool and keeping those ewe hoggets with high fleece weights – but don’t bother unless you can do it easily and you think it will give an objective measure to reduce numbers further.
• Hoggets with high liveweight will also have the genes for high fleece weight (the genetic and phenotypic correlations between the two traits are highly positive).
• If wool was worth more in overall returns, then things may be different. However, if you breed fine wool then it would certainly be worth culling on hogget fleece weight.

Two-tooth ewes

• These ewe hoggets have now become two-tooths and should look a picture because remember their background and the intense selection pressure you have put on them so far.
• Also remember that so far, their individual FEC is not known. Apart from the odd sample to monitor progress, it’s not worth doing any more FEC. It doesn’t matter at this stage whether they are resilient or resistant or a bit of both.
• Keep on being ruthless and culling any that develop problems like footrot.
• If you want a confidence booster, do another FEC on 10 of them, just to see how their host resistance is building up.
• The next job is to plan their mating, so you’ll have to decide what kind of rams to buy and where are you going to get them from?
• These top two-tooths certainly deserve something special that can improve their genetics for host resistance to worms, and not just to get them pregnant. There are two things you can do:
  

Option 1.
You may already have a ram team on the farm purchased from SIL or other stud breeders in the past. Check their FEC/FCS making sure they have been drench-free for at least 2 months (preferably 3).

Option 2.
Check what rams are available for the current season from breeders using SIL.

1. Using your current ram team

• Your current ram team bought from SIL or other stud breeders in previous seasons will have been a considerable investment, and it would be well worthwhile to see what their worm resistance status is by doing a FEC on all of them. Make sure they have not been drenched for at least 2 months (preferably 3) before the FEC.
• Rank them on FEC/FCS and decide what trigger levels you can afford to accept. Whatever the FEC, don’t use any ram that has ever had a dirty backside or not thrived over winter.
• Aim for nil FEC or certainly not higher than 500 epg and with FCS of marbles or hand grenades.
• If you have high-Index rams that you paid a lot of money for, and they have higher-than-acceptable FEC, test them again before considering their future as culls.
• This exercise will be a very good investment as you could be either shocked to see what possible genetic worm resistance you had bought in, or you could be pleasantly surprised.
• It’s going to be vital information for when you talk to your ram breeder for next year, either to order more or cancel the lot! At least you have valuable factual information for your decision which may bring about some industry change. Pigs may fly before this!
• If you want to buy more rams from the stud breeder next season, then demand to see FEC/FCS from the rams on offer – making sure they were not drenched for at least 2 months before the test or never drenched at all. The response could be interesting!
  

2. Buying in rams from SIL breeders

• Contact your nearest consultant from Sheep Improvement Ltd (SIL) by phoning 0800-745-435, or Email .
• Find out which breeders are formally selecting for host resistance to worms and incorporating it with other productive traits into an overall Index.
• Make sure the breeders are doing this formally though SIL which will show in an official logo (WormFEC™) on their Ram Selection List.
• But be prepared for snags. Despite the SIL WormFEC protocol in the Breeders’ Manual (1994), some breeders have developed a few variations of their own, so for example, check how many of their total rams on the selection list are included in WormFEC data to go into their DPO index. Others may be using the SIL dag score too to add into the overall DPO index.
• The FCS is not accepted by SIL information. So for your own protection, it would be a good idea when you have your potential purchases sorted out to check them with the faecal probe for marbles or hand grenades, and avoid like the plague any with soft faeces (FCS or 3, 4 or 5).
• Note they should not have been drenched for at least two months before sampling – which may be an unrealistic request from a client.
• Because of the low numbers of ram suppliers doing this at present, expect to pay a premium for their rams.
• Make sure you use these rams to their maximum and certainly much more than accepted mating ratios.
  
• See blog on how to get the most from a Worm Resistant (WR) ram.
  

PATHWAY 2: Selecting females to breed males

• Your main task now is to search for dams of future rams (ram mothers), as these are going to be critical. They need a special status so call them your ‘elite’ ewes. They will be thrilled about this!
• You won’t have to look far to find them, as the ewes that started off as twin-scanners and have been ruthlessly culled right through to weaning their lambs, have got to be the core of the elite flock.
• Your ram supplier or agent won’t like this idea, especially when you say you have closed your flock and want to severely reduce or cancel your ram order for next season.
• You had better make sure you have some sound genetic and economic reasons to support your actions. Tell them what you are doing and especially why, and invite them to come and see your elite ewes. Use their reaction –positive or negative as motivation.
  

The elite flock

• Aim to end up with from 7-10% of your total ewe flock in an elite group. Be flexible though.
• Keep going back into these elite ewes and (depending on numbers needed) keep culling them hard for any physical defects and health problems (especially any that are daggy, had flystrike, are lame or have simply packed up). Keep searching for structurally sound robust ewes.
• Continue to be ruthless, and if you have any doubts about a sheep, cull it.
• YOU need to have great confidence in these sheep, as they’ll be great motivators for you and your staff as the programme proceeds.
• Expect to get cold feet from time to time over what you are doing – and you’ll doubtless have criticism from some quarters. Use any criticism as motivation to succeed.
• In your doubting moments, just go and walk through the elite ewes and see if you can fault them or if you have seen any better ones on the way home from town! This will restore your faith in the exercise.
• If you know of any skeptics, invite them out to the back of the farm to see the elite ewes as that’s where they’ll be. They won’t be grazing the hay paddocks by the road!
• If you need more ewes to boost elite flock numbers, select them from two-tooths that scanned twins, i.e. if you marked them and kept them separate. If not remember to do it next time.
• These elite twin-scanned two-tooths need to be screened for FEC. It will be worth spending money on taking individual samples and keeping the best sheep with low FEC corrected for FCS (below 500 epg).
• This would also ID any that had very high FEC for future culling.
• If you can’t afford the FECs, then at least use the faecal probe to cull any that don’t have a score of 1 (marbles) or 2 (hand grenades). If you have the numbers, only go for those with clearly-defined marbles.
  

Maintaining the elite flock
This is a vitally important part of the exercise. To maintain the elite flock, use the same simple rules that you used at the start of the programme.

To gain entry into the elite flock in the first place, or to regain entry at any subsequent lambing, then a sheep must have completed all of the following:

• Scanned twins.
• Not been wet/dry at docking.
• Survived all the culling on constitution, health and structural soundness – and not caused any extra work or cost you money!
• Have shown some clear evidence of being host-resistant to worms through good performance and low FEC.
• Never shown any sign of a dirty rear end and have consistently produced marbles or hand grenades.
  

Docking ram lambs from elite ewes

• Keep all the ram lambs entire from these elite ewes.
• Do NOT drench any of them.
• Permanently ID the ram lambs at docking by taking a bit out of the ear or punching a hole.
• Or put a small plastic tag in them if you have enough helpers.
  

Weaning ram lambs from elite ewes

• Do NOT drench any of these ram lambs at weaning.
• Treat them as for the ewe lambs (above).
  

Ram hoggets

• When these ram lambs are hoggets, manage them the same as for the ewe hoggets, except put a lot more selection pressure on them. A good starting target is to cull 80% and end up with 20% for the final selection.
• Every 2-3 weeks (a month is too long) after weaning, draft off any ‘tail-enders’ and if you think they need it, give them (the culls) a conventional combination drench and mark them for sale.
• They’ll make good money during the winter and remember the auctioneer will proudly tell buyers they’ve just been drenched and will shift well!
• OR before drenching - advertise them as ‘chemical-free’ lambs or see if your meat company is interested in them at a premium.
• Don’t mix the drenched culls with those kept as replacements.
• Be very strict on what you keep, and get rid of any that don’t meet your standards.
• In mid winter, do the same as for the ewe hoggets, weigh them and cull the tail-end on a target weight.
• Now give them a permanent ID (number and year born) with a reliable plastic tag if you didn’t do it at docking. They are very valuable stock.
• Keep culling any animals that fade and get daggy. Look for those animals consistently passing marbles and hand grenades. Be ruthless!
• Record their live weight twice. First in May (winter) and then in August (spring).
• As there will not be large numbers at this stage, it would be worthwhile recording fleece weight at hogget shearing (usually in October). Cull those with the lowest fleece weight and off-type wool.
• When they are weighed in May, do a FEC and correct it for FCS. Then repeat this at the August weighing.
• Use this information to start sorting out a top team. Make up a simple index by adding the two live weights to the fleece weight and put them in order from highest to lowest. Put the FEC corrected for FCS alongside each animal.
• Come down the list looking for individuals with the highest combined weights and Nil FEC. If you can’t achieve nil FEC then go for the next lowest figures.
• See what the numbers look like to meet your needs, aiming to end up with around 20% of the original group to proceed to the two-tooth stage.
  

Two-tooth rams

• When the ram hoggets are two-tooths, things are starting to get exciting and any doubts about the wisdom of starting this exercise should have long gone. They should look a picture!
  
• If they don’t then review what you have done and accept that the challenge may be bigger than you expected. Use this as motivation to do better next season.
• Keep studying the selection list developed above and if you still want to reduce numbers, you can always increase selection pressure by doing another FEC/FCS on the very top ones as a reassurance that they are host resistant.
• Or you could take another live weight.
• Keep culling on structural soundness as there is always a few last-minute cases of footrot or scald injuries. Or teeth going wonky!
• Select a first team to mate with your elite ewes to speed up generation turnover, and make sure they all had nil FEC and FCS of 1 (marbles).
• Keep a second team to mate to the flock ewes – again if possible with nil FEC corrected for FCS. Nil FEC or FCS of 1 has got to be the standard for all two-tooth rams eventually used.
• Graze them now and again in the hay paddock by the road so passers-by and your critics will see them! It will also help challenge the rams’ immunity and host resistance as these paddocks tend to be regularly overstocked and rich in larvae.
• Have an outrageous price ready for anyone brave enough to ask! This is no joke as what is the value of a ram that is very likely to be host resistant to internal parasites with a nil FEC will not grow dags and certainly has never had a drench?
• You may easily get some offers – perhaps from your critics or via your vet from clients who have stopped buying drench because they have ‘hit the wall’ over drench resistance.
  

PATHWAY 3: Selecting males to breed females

Using the two-tooth rams

• This genetic pathway is the ‘power stroke’ in flock improvement because a ram has greater genetic influence than any single female.
• These rams are worth big money and if in doubt, ask yourself where you could buy better ones with proven host resistance to worms and dag-free?
• They have been intensively selected on your farm, so there are no doubts about how their progeny will suit your farming system.
• Their mission is to sire as many future females as possible in the flock to spread their genetic potential for host resistance to worms and dags. They will be delighted to accept the challenge.
• If AI had been a commercial reality, then this would have been the way to use them. But a lot can be done using single-sire natural mating.
• Past experience has shown that in situations like this where genetic improvement is ‘urgent’, top rams can be joined for single–sire mating with 400 ewes for one cycle. You’ll be surprised how many lambs will result. But for more ‘normal’ use- join a ram with 100 ewes.
  

PATHWAY 4: Selecting males to breed males

• This is the final genetic pathway and comes as part of pathway 3.
• The male lambs produced by these top sires will go around the loop again described in Pathway 2.
• Inevitably the top sires of this generation will sire the top sires of the next generation, and breeders often get concerned about the build-up of inbreeding. With a large flock this is not a major problem in the early stages.
• When you become concerned, then one outcross to sheep from a breeder with similar objectives will restore enough genetic variation for you to continue making progress.
• Another method is to divide your main flock into small sub-flocks (on paper) and keep moving rams around these in a planned rotation each year.
  

Final points to ponder

• There is no need to panic! You cannot do any ‘genetic’ harm in your flock, because if you’ve been buying rams from progressive stud breeders in the past, you’ll have enough of their good genetics in your flock to stay where you are.
  
• You should in theory only be a couple of generations behind them.
• You certainly cannot go genetically backwards without some very serious negative selection which would be hard to do. Everything you have done so far is positive!
• With the basic selection programme as outlined, the chances are very high that you’ll go forward on to a new ‘genetic plateau’ – and keep going.
• You have used the four classical ‘genetic pathways’ for flock improvement – and you’ve shown that the dull theory (that has bored so many generations of students) does actually work in practice! Oh if they had only appreciated this when they slept through the lectures!
  

What to do if you hit a crisis?

• This could happen of course – an example would be an unexpected outbreak of Barber’s Pole (Haemonchus contortus) worms or some other species.
• Again don’t panic, as all you need do is use an appropriate conventional drench, and because your sheep have never been drenched and are either resilient and/or resistant, the drench will be highly effective.
• Such an outbreak should be a one-off event and will not compromise your breeding programme. But be vigilant as under the law you cannot compromise animal welfare.
  

Whew! Did you make it?

• Congratulations if you came through all that lot!
• You deserve a plasma-screened TV or an iPod!
• Remember what it was all about - to breed sheep with a high natural (genetic) immunity to internal parasites.
  

Disclaimer This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.