Animal behaviour and welfare: Cats Part 2

CAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 2

Cat’s senses: Communication: Social behaviour

By Dr Clive Dalton











Vision

• Kittens are born nearly blind and their eyes open at 7-10 days old (range from 2-16 days).
• So touch and physical contact are very important to cats. This has big implications for humans and is widely exploited to the benefit of both cat and owner.
• Cats can see colour but with limited perception. They have better colour vision than dogs.
• Cats are creatures of the night and see well in poor light due to the structure of the eye. They can dilate their large pupils.
• Each eye has 150-205 degrees peripheral vision, with 90-130 degrees overlap for binocular vision. So they have a total visual field of 250-280 degrees.
  
• Cats cannot focus closer than 75mm - but at that close distance when hunting they use other senses. Their best vision is around 2-6m
  

Hearing

• Kittens are born with poor hearing and start to become normal by 3 weeks.
• Cat hears sounds up to 50-85kHz - human upper limit is 18-20 kHz. So they hear about four times better than humans and in the ultrasonic range that we cannot hear.
• Cats can also hear higher sounds than dogs.
• Their hearing range is very wide - over 10.5 octaves.
• Cats have mobile ears allowing rapid response to locate the source of the sound.
• They can interpret different wave patterns hitting each ear.
• The ear structure is a important in aiding balance when falling
  

Smell

• Cats have a very well developed olfactory system - 1000 times better than humans.
• Smell is very important in communication.
• Cats recognise the general smell of their home environment and are sensitive to any small changes.
  
• It's important to get the cat used to anything new in the environment as soon as possible - e.g. a new cat or baby.
• Cats have a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) on the hard palate which they can use to sense chemicals in aromas. They then show a Flehmen response, baring their teeth and giving a quiet hissing sound - called the "gape response" like the Flehmen in large animals. You see it when they sniff catnip.
• Smell governs what a cat will eat so they should avoid blocked noses.
• A cat's sense of smell is much more developed than in humans.
  
• They can detect small changes in food and you see this if you change a brand of cat meat. They will almost starve before they'll eat the new brand.
• Newborn kittens have an acute sense of smell to help them locate teats
  

Taste

• Cats show little response to sweet things but can detect salt, sour and bitter.
• They are very sensitive to the taste of water which explain their bizarre behaviour of sometimes drinking from muddy pools and fish tanks.
• Taste is less important than smell - smell is everything to a cat.
• Cats don't taste when hunting prey, only when sink their teeth in after capture.
  

Touch (Kinaesthetics)

• The cat's whole body is very sensitive to touch.
• The long outer guard hairs of the coat are especially sensitive.
• Hair movement provides information for the cat in its environment, e.g. wind direction to approach prey.
• Receptors also are concentrated in the feet pads.
• Cats are not very sensitive to heat - can stand up to 52C, e.g. lying beside fire.
• They can detect changes of 0.5°C via their noses which they use in hunting.
• Cats have very mobile whiskers used for sensing. Whiskers are forward when walking or hunting and back when greeting or sniffing.
  

Memory and learning

• Cats can show some ability to reason and work things out - but it is limited, so make sure you have not been anthropomorphic in drawing conclusions.
• The can understand cause and effect - if the interval between each is short.
• The have a fair degree of memory retention if reinforced by repeated attempts.
• Examples are cats that learn to jump up and turn door knobs or work cat doors.
• Cats can learn from copying other cats. Kittens learn a wide range of behaviours from their mother, or mothers reinforce inherent behaviours.
• More people are now training cats to do tricks, apart from the basic needs of house training, and stopping them scratching furniture.
  

Communication - sound

• Cats being very social animals have a well developed communication skills.
• They have learned to vocalise a special range of sounds for humans - cats don't mew to other cats.
• Sixteen different sounds have been recognised that are audible to humans. There are also many which are not audible to us.

Pure calls

• Murmur
• Growl
• Squeak
• Hiss
• Spit
• Teeth chatter
• 
  

Complex calls

• Mew
• Moan
• Meow
  

• There is also a wide range of tones and meanings - most common are growl/hiss/yowl.
• Purring is most commonly known to humans as the sign of a happy cat and is a very typical greeting call. It was a long time before researchers found how the cat did it.
• It's caused by rapid contraction of muscles in the larynx when the cat is contented or happy. A cat can sometimes purr when stressed. Purring is used when a mother nurses kittens as a contentment reassuring sound.
• The meow has a wide range of tones and it's often easy for owners to interpret some of these sounds.
• Oestrus howling has an important courting function, not appreciated by humans or their neighbours during the night!
  

Communication - body language
Cats use a large amount of non-verbal communication such as:

• Body postures
• Facial expressions
• Eyes, ears, mouth, tail and coat.
• They have developed a range of body signals for humans and other cats.
• "Friendly and relaxed" - the tail is held out behind or erect and curled slightly forward. The cat will rub itself against things and rub its muzzle on you to transfer scent.
• "Passive" - it sits crouched, tail and head down and avoids direct gaze.
• "In conflict" - the entire tail twitches or just the end. It is done in association with other signs.
• "Offensive threat" - the cat gives you a direct stare and its body is poised for attack. The cat approaches an enemy with sideways motion and prancing steps. This makes the cat look bigger to the enemy.
• "Defensive threat" - the back is arched, body fur fluffed up and tail up straight. The chin is drawn in to protect the throat. One paw is raised ready to lash out.
• With the eyes, narrow eyes show friendship with the stare being a definite threat.
  
• When the cat turns away from you it can be a sign of disdain or that the relationship in from the cat's viewpoint is OK. If a cat jumps up on you this is also a sign that the cat does not see you as a threat.
  

Communication - pheromones

• These are very important in cat communication.
• They are spread around in urine marks, faeces, scratch marks from feet and cheek glands.
• They make these marks where they are easy for other cats to find.
• The higher they scratch the more powerful impression they leave.
  

Balance and activity

• In the first couple of weeks after birth kittens crawl with sideways movements of the head like pups seeking warmth and teats.
• It is 7 weeks before they can thermoregulate (control their heat) themselves as they need Mum's heat up to then.
• By week 2 they can raise their front end.
• By day 17 they can stand and do an awkward walk.
• By 6 weeks they can right themselves if they fall over.
• Cats show this amazing "righting reflex" when falling as they land on their feet. This is a function of the inner ear, a large cerebellum and the spinal cord.
• Kittens are notoriously active and need to be encouraged to play in their socialisation and development.
• Mature cats reduce activity and spend more than 65% sleeping.
  
• Tom cats during the mating season are very active traveling long distances checking out their territory.
  

Play

• Play is an essential part of normal behaviour in the cat.
• It starts early as soon as kittens are mobile when they spend long periods interacting.
• Play teaches the kitten all the movements needed to survive and reproduce as an adult.
• Kittens reared in a litter are usually better-adjusted adults than single-reared kittens who only have their parents to play with.
• As an individual in a litter, there's a much great chance to learn to prepare and defend yourself against surprise attack, than as a singleton.
• A wide range of play moves have been identified:
• Scoop, Toss, Grasp,Poke-Bat, Bite-Mouth, Belly up, Stand up, Vertical stand, Pounce, Chase, Side step, Horizontal leap, Face off
  

Grooming

• This is a big feature of cats and occupies 30-50% of a cat's waking time.
• It also creates problems - fur ball.

Purpose of grooming:

• Maintains health of the skin and coat.
• Cools the body by evaporation of saliva.
• Controls parasites.
• "Displacement grooming" is a response to conflict, environmental stress or frustration. It's thought to be a response to reduce anxiety.
• "Mutual grooming" is used for social interaction and to show a relaxed state with other cats. Developed from maternal grooming.
• "Over grooming" - a problem sometimes started by itchy skin. It can develop into a serious obsession where cats become "closet lickers" and are hard to catch at it and stop.
  

Socialisation

• Kittens must be socialised early at between 2-6 weeks. This is a much shorter time span than in dogs.
• If they can be handled before their eyes are open, that's all the better.
• If kittens are not socialised before weaning (6weeks) then you'll have problems and it will take time to tame them.
• Kitten Kindy. This is a new approach by veterinarians to teach people how to socialise their kittens.
• At 2-9 weeks provide human contact and handling.
• As often as possible before 12 weeks handle kittens and routinely restrain them.
• 7-12 weeks - provide social play.
• After 14 weeks teach them fearful play, and learn to play fight.
• Be careful with this "play fight" activity as it can teach them to be over aggressive.
• Check the "Scruff test" where you hold the kitten by the scruff of its neck. If they allow this and don't fight of struggle, then they are probably OK.
  

Nutrition and feeding

• Cats are mainly carnivores, but modern cat foods contain some cereals to provide carbohydrates.
• Cats eat both day and night whereas dogs only feed during the day.
• They are very fussy about what they eat due to their acute sense of smell, and once settled on a brand of cat food they often don't appreciate changes.
• In the wild they would probably eat every second day after a hunt.
• The principles of nutrition are simple - the cat's nutrient intake should meet its needs. So growing, pregnant and lactating cats will need a much higher plane of nutrition than the family cat that sleeps most of the time.
• Overfeeding leads to obesity and health problems.
• The modern domestic cat is regularly overfed. Owners who go out to work leave an ad lib feeder full of biscuits, or tinned meat in a dish far in excess of what the cat needs. Unless owners see feed left, they think the cat will be hungry and hence starve!
• Owners need to discuss feeding their cat with a veterinarian so that it receives a correctly balanced diet which meets its needs - not its wants.
  

Reproduction

• Cats are seasonal breeders and the start of oestrus is stimulated by increasing daylight. They need 12-14 hours of light to get going.
• So the breeding season gets into full swing in spring.
  
• Toms also are seasonally active but stud Toms will mate any time. Their maximum fertility is in spring.
• Puberty is around 9 months but some breeds will start at 4 months.
• Cats can be desexed at 6 months old.
• Non pregnant females cycle every18-24 days.
• Heat periods last 4 hours if mated and 5-10 days if not.
• Ovulation is induced by copulation and it happens 27 hours after copulation.
• If they don't conceive after mating they will often have a pseudo pregnancy and won't start cycling again for 36 days.
• Cats have litters usually averaging around 4-5 kittens.
• Kittens are born blind and with very poor hearing like pups.
• Eyes open around 2-3 weeks.
• The cat mating ritual is very defined with mock fighting, body contact, and rapid and repeated coitus. It's a very noisy affair that can go on all day.
  

Desexing (neutering)

• Castration of males and spaying females prevents reproduction and all the associated behaviours.
• Spraying and fighting may still continue, but this may be brought about by special environmental factors. It may be done away from home range.
• The timing of desexing is important - get it done early before 6 months?
• It is claimed that no other cat behaviours are affected.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Dogs Part 2

DOG BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 2

Dog’s senses: Diet: Communication

By Dr Clive Dalton

Vision

• The position of a dog's eyes on its head varies and this has important implications for its visual perception of things in its environment.
• Generally dogs have 70% more peripheral and 20% narrower binocular vision than humans.
• Hence dogs are more aware of movement at the side of their heads and they need to move their heads more in order to focus.
• Dogs have an ability to see movement 10 times better than humans. We use this in training with hand signals to reinforce voice commands.
• Slight movement of your hand or body can over stimulate a dog - so watch for raised arm that the dog may see as threat.
• Visual discrimination of detail and silhouette is not as good as the human.
• Dogs have poor colour reception and inferior awareness of detail.
• Dogs can clearly differentiate between levels of brightness.
  

Hearing

• Hearing ranges from 20,000 to 50,000 cycles per second (cps). Humans peaks at 20,000 cps. So dogs can hear ultrasound.
  
• As a general rule, dogs' hearing is about four times better than humans so a dog can hear sounds at 25m that man can only hear at 6m.
• There are silent dog whistles used by some handlers. We hear this sound they make as a low hiss.
• Visual clues are useful to indicate to the dog where a sound came from.
• Dogs don't understand English -they hear sounds. So vary the sounds you use to command a dog.
• There is no need to shout at a dog! Use loud sounds for reprimands and soft for approval.
• Dogs respond to a "happy voice" when given with other positive signals.
• Keep auditory signals simple.
  

Smell

• The dog has a highly developed sense of smell - 1000 times better than humans.
• Dogs can smell a fingerprint on glass up to 6 weeks after placement.
• Dogs have a Vomeronasal Organ (VNO) near the hard palate that provides a third chemical sense so it's almost tasting a smell as well as smelling it.
• The dog does not show a Flehmen response like the cat.
• The dogs acute sense of smell is a major cause of "human" problems.
• Smelling bitches on heat at long distances.
• Finding carrion to eat and roll in.
• Smelling strangers as a threat and biting.
• A new theory says the dog's great ability to smell was a reason for "joint evolution". Man lost his sense of smell because the dog as part of his tribe, did the smelling for him.
• Smell is a vitally important part of dog communication when meeting. Dogs greet each other first nose-to-nose (naso-naso).
• Remember the importance of smell when dogs meet humans - hold the back of your hand out to a strange dog to smell.
• The dog's anal glands hold its complete CV. So after the naso-naso greeting, dogs proceed to smell each other's anal region (naso-ano).
  

Touch

• The early life of a dog is one of touch and smell as it is born blind and with poor hearing.
• Hence touch is an enormous bonding feature among dogs and is one of the highest rewards you can give a dog.
• It is the key to bonding with humans during training and you see it with huntaways at dog trials - leaning on their handler for reassurance waiting the start.
• Farm dog trainers don't need a pocket full of treats - they use touch and voice tone to communicate their messages.

Where to touch an unfamiliar dog
The top of the dog - head, scruff, back and tail are all "dominant" areas. It's where other dogs grab in fights. Until you know the dog, touch it on low-down areas.

• Don't grab the scruff.
• Don't pat the top of its head.
• Don't pat its shoulders.
• Don't touch its tail.
• Pat its chest and under its jaw
• Avoid eye contact at the same time.
  

Diet

• Dogs eat only during the day unlike cats that eat both day and night.
• In operant research when dogs were given a free choice of diet, they preferred warm sweet sloppy foods, which is not surprising because after a kill, the wild dog first eats the guts and stomach contents.
• Wild dogs also prefer variety in their diet and are omnivores (eating both animal and plant foods).
• Wild dogs will usually eat every second day so why do many pet dogs eat every time the owner eats leading to obesity? It seems very hard for them to refuse feeding a begging dog.
• What do we give our dogs? We feed dry biscuits from the bag and cold dog roll from the fridge.
• But we must realise that humans purchase dog diets. Research shows we use human standards about what we think will taste nice and be wholesome for the dog.
• Farm dogs have been underfed for generations on frozen mutton and scraps which are deficient in some important B complex vitamins.
• Biscuits are widely promoted for their convenience as a feed and as "complete diet".
• Working dogs are athletes and need high energy diets. Pet dogs do little and many really need starving - but don't suggest that to the owner of an obese pet!
• The principles of nutrition are simple - you feed the dog to meet its nutritional needs.
• Note the difference between "wants and needs", as dogs will only stop eating when they are full. They don't know when their nutritional needs have been met
  

Dog communication

• Being a pack animal, communication is vital for survival and dogs use a very wide range of body and verbal signals to communicate.
• Examples are body posture/tail/eyes/hair/teeth/yawn/trembling
• You will recognise the welcome "smile" when a low ranking dog meets greets you. They turn their upper lip up to expose their teeth.
• The wagging tail is not always a sign of happiness - it shows that the dog is prepared to interact with the stimulus - good or bad.
• Eye contact is important to show dominance. Don't eyeball an aggressive dog.
• Dogs need their tails to give a wide range of signals. So why are some breeds docked and are the human reasons justified?
  
• The Kennel Club approves the docking of 45 breeds of purebred dogs that are customarily docked.
• Smell is vitally important to dogs. But sniffing can get out of hand and become a problem for humans.
• Dogs love rolling in carrion and faeces to send messages to other dogs - and the dogs think their owners as pack members will appreciate it too!
• Remember the importance of the anal gland in indicating the dog's status.
• Territorial scent marking is vitally important in dogs, especially in males to denote territory and warn off strangers.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Sheep Part 1

SHEEP BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Senses: Social behaviour: Feeding

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• Domestication of sheep started some11,000 years ago to produce an animal that was more docile and more flexible than the wild sheep to fit man's needs.
  
• Sheep proved to be very adaptable to a wide range of environments.
  
• After domestication, they spread across many continents and developed into a range of types.
  
• They are found from cold continental areas, in dry deserts, and right through to the tropics.

Uses for sheep:

• Meat
• Wool - clothing
• Skins - clothing, footwear, housing and saddles
• Milk - cheese
• Animal fat
• Offal - wide range of products and pharmaceuticals
• Companions - pets
  

Modern sheep problems
World sheep populations tend to be on the decrease for a number of reasons such as:

• Wool garments and carpets have gone out of fashion.
• The demand for wool is low, resulting in world surplus.
• Sheep have too many predators that are protected by environmentalists.
• Sheep meat is not eaten by many nations in the world.
• NZ sheep population dropped from 70 million in the 1980s to 47 million today. It is not likely to increase rapidly in the near future.
  

Sheep senses

Sheep using all their senses to check out a threat - man and dog

Sight

• Sheep have generally very good vision.
• The position of their eye allows for wide peripheral vision as they can span some 145 with each eye.
• Binocular vision is much narrower - 40 wide. They have no vision 2-3cm immediately in front of the nose.
• After locating a threat in their peripheral vision, they turn to examine it with binocular vision.
• They have a blind spot at the rear around 70 which is wider than the cow and is useful when catching sheep.
• Sheep tracks are never straight as sheep continually turn to watch behind them.
• They have colour vision but it's not as well developed as in humans.
• They often react in fear to novel colours that they're not used to, e.g. yellow raingear.
• Sheep remember flock mates for very long periods (years) after separation.
  

Smell

• Sheep have a good sense of smell and will not eat mouldy or musty feed.
• Smell is a major factor in rams locating ewes in heat.
• Smell is also vital in lamb identification by the dam associated with sight recognition.
• Sheep are very sensitive to predator smells.

Hearing

• Sheep have acute hearing and they can direct their ears to the direction of the sound.

Social order

'Flocking and follower' behaviour used in mustering sheep
Note the heading dog behind the mob allowing them to move quietly along the tracks

• Sheep are the classical social "flocking" animal and are a "follower species".
• They use the flock for a defence against predators - running away a short distance to form a flock and then turning round to face the predator. On closer approach by the threat, they scatter and regroup.
• Social ranking is not as obvious in sheep as in other species. Normally you'll see very few confrontations among ewes without young lambs to fight over.
• Sheep work out a social order by head butting, nudging, poking with horns, shoulder pushing, blocking and mounting. This is seen most clearly in horned rams (American wild mountain sheep) that back off then charge, meeting head to head with a large bang.
  
• Horned and polled rams should not be mixed as the horned rams will break the others' neck.
• Submissive behaviours in sheep include lowering of the head and neck and moving away with a head shake.
• In wild sheep a dominant ram leads a small flock followed by females, juveniles and lambs. He establishes this as a harem of about a dozen ewes.
• Rams can form harems in farmed flocks in large hill country paddocks where they can easily get separated from main flock. Regular mustering is needed to prevent this.
• In wild sheep, a lamb will stay with its dam till the next lamb is born. Both sexes will stay in their family groups till the adolescent males take off.
• In farmed flocks you don't see much evidence of social order, as regular mustering and movement prevent much of it.
• In groups of rams, especially Merinos in hot climates with no shade, they stand in a tight pack creating shade for each other.
  
• The Merino packs especially tightly when being handled and once in a tight circular mob, you have to get a leader to spin off somewhere and act as leader to get some movement.
  
• This leader sheep is not of high social rank - it's the first one who thinks they can escape. Pressure from barking dogs just makes the pack tighter, and if you are in the middle of this crush, you can feel the physical pressure that can lead to a smother.
• Merinos need room to move and hate hassle. They have different behaviour to other farmed breeds.
• Lambs are noted for their play behaviour - "follow the leader" and "king of the castle". It's said to be an indication of intelligence level and using this behaviour, sheep would rank higher than any other ungulate.
  

A wonderful example of sheep as a 'follower species'. It's easy in a round sale ring to keep sheep circling following each other to show them to buyers. Notice the shepherds are going against the flow of the sheep, so the sheep think they are escaping away from danger.
(Photo by kind permission of Helen Brown)

Feeding

• Sheep are ruminants and they start nibbling pasture from about a week old. They are efficient ruminants by about a month old.
• Sheep can graze more closely than cattle as they have a split upper lip.
• They graze for about 8-9 hours/day, which can extend to 13 hours when feed is short.
• Grazing bouts (when feed is plentiful) are about 20 -90 minutes, and they can have as many as 9 of them in 24 hours.
  
• After a grazing bout they have spells of 45-90 minutes of rumination and rest.
• In open range sheep have preferred areas and stick to these. This is seen in the UK "hefting" system in unfenced mountain grazings.
  
• A major concern in the UK Foot and Mouth disaster was how to replace these sheep after slaughter as they would have to learn this behaviour all again.
• Mixed grazing by cattle and sheep is ideal to maintain a good close pasture, and sheep adapt to this without any behavioural problems.
• The condition of a sheep's teeth is critical, and can have a big effect on behaviour.
• Sheep learn from their mothers which feed to eat. South Island sheep will eat grain and hay as they learn from their mothers in spring. North Island sheep will generally not eat grain or hay as they are never offered it, except in serious feed shortages such as droughts.
• It often takes 2-3 weeks for sheep to learn as mature animals, and some may never accept supplementary feed and starve. Sheep also learn to eat different feeds from other adults or their peers.
• Sheep store surplus energy as fat inside the body cavity (e.g. kidney fat and around the intestines) and under the skin. They use this up during late pregnancy and lactation for lamb growth and milk production.
• About 3-4 weeks before mating ewes are given extra feed to encourage extra eggs to be shed from the ovary, ending in more lambs produced. This is called "flushing".
• Sheep kept indoors show stress by eating the wood of their pens and they will also eat their wool, or the wool of the sheep in the next pen.
• This wool eating is seen is sheep that have been buried in deep snow for up to three weeks.
• Sheep need water - about 4litres/day/adult sheep and 1 litre/day for a lamb. But they can adapt to severe drought conditions and extract enough moisture to survive from herbage. The Australian outback Merino shows this important behavioural trait best.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Goats Part 1

GOAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Goats & man: Senses: Social behaviour

By Dr Clive Dalton

Goats are not like sheep

Milking goats soon adapt their grazing and herding behaviour to the
timing and routine of twice-a-day milking

• The first thing to accept is that goats are very different from sheep in their behaviour, and we sometimes forget this when trying to handle them.
  
• The goat is found on all the continents of the world, and is one of man's most important animals as more people in the world eat goat meat than eat sheep meat.
• Goat remains 10,000 years old (or of their early ancestors) have been found in central and West Iran, and domestic goats existed in other parts of the world for 8,000 years.
  
• Some authorities suggest that goats were companion animals long before dogs. The goat has also caused many of the world's deserts through man's ignorance and stupidity resulting in over grazing.
• The goat was domesticated early along with sheep and adapted well to man's nomadic lifestyle as well as in established farming.
• Goats are a different species to sheep with different numbers of chromosomes (sheep 27 pairs and goat 30 pairs). Hybrids between them are often reported (Geeps or Shoats) but are not viable and don't breed.

Products from goats:

• Meat - called Chevon
• Dairy produce - milk, cheese, yoghurt
• Skins
• Fibre - mohair, cashmere, cashgora (Cashmere x Angora), and beard hair.
• In some cultures they are sacrificed for religious reasons.
  
• Companions and pets.
  

Goat senses

Sight

• Sight is very similar to sheep (see sheep)
• Goats have a similar blind spot at their rear, but they are more difficult to catch using this area as they are generally more alert than sheep and are not blinded by wool on the head and around the eyes.
• They can distinguish different colours - responding best to orange and worst to blue.
  

Hearing

• Goats are very sensitive to a range of sounds from the high pitched squeals of kids to low pitched snorts or foot stamping on the ground.
• They have an ability to move their ears to locate the source of sound.
  

Smell

• Being browsers and highly selective grazers, goats have a keen sense of smell which aids in diet selection.
• Goats will not eat mouldy or musty feed, and generally avoid poisonous plants unless they are wilted and then are more palatable.

Peg Dewes knows that goats are not like sheep
and expects to be accosted & have her jacket chewed & tasted

Social behaviour

• Goats are a flocking species but they don't flock as tightly as sheep.
  
• Feral goats are hard to muster as individuals (especially males) keep breaking back and prefer to escape rather than herd with the mob.
  
• Sheep stick with the mob for safety unlike goats that seem to more keen to take a chance on their own.
  
• Goats will herd together better when you get them off their home range. It's a good idea to have some sheep in the goat mob to encourage flocking during mustering.
• Goats are a "lying-out" species like cattle and deer which is a big contrast to sheep.
• Males join harems of females in autumn and feral bucks will travel up to 20km to find does. But the rest of the year they are in bachelor groups or live as solitary males. They sort out a social order in these groups by bunting and horn wrestling.
• So most of the year, an alpha female leads a small family group of females suckling their current kids, with any previous adolescent females still in the group. A dam may suckle a kid till the next one is born.
• Younger members of the family or tribe are submissive to higher-ranking females.
• As most feral goats in NZ have horns, they use these along with head butts to sort out their social status.
• In farmed milking goats, you see them bunting and biting each other in the milking bail to sort out their differences, especially in competition for any feed supplements.
• At mating the buck is the harem leader and fights off any on-comers. These may be younger lower-ranking males in the group waiting for an opportunity, but the old buck is the boss and does the mating.
• Mature bucks sort themselves out by serious head butting, rising on their hind legs to attack with horns and heads. They also use their horns to side-rake their opponents
  

Climbing and digging

Goats will dig holes to get through below fences

• Goats are remarkable in their ability to climb and can move safely along narrow mountain paths to graze among the rocks.
• You often see a roadside goat standing on the ridge of their A-framed shelter.
• The contrast between goats and sheep is best seen at school pet days, where the goat kids are tested in extra exercises like climbing and walking over a see saw which would be a much greater challenge to a lamb.
• This ability can be a problem in farming, as goats will climb fence stays to jump over. So electric fencing is necessary to run goats, especially at the high stocking rates needed to make them eat weeds.
• Goats will also dig holes below fences to escape. They also like to dig areas to lie in and enjoy the sun's warmth in winter. They do this especially on North facing slopes which then start eroding.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Cattle Part 1

CATTLE BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Senses: Communication

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins and domestication

Cattle evolved into about 260 different breeds, types and varieties in different parts of world such as the Buffalo in North America and the Yak in China. Wild ancestors of today's cattle e.g. the Auroch, were hunted for meat. Early humans feared and respected the early cattle for the shape of their crescent-shaped horns, which they considered had religious significance.

Cattle were domesticated for milk and meat and finding ways to castrate and dehorn cattle greatly aided domestication. Cattle also provide hides for clothing and other sophisticated products used in pharmaceuticals. Cattle (oxen and buffalo) still provide power in the developing world as well as dung used for cooking and building. Cattle are also a measure of human wealth in parts of world, e.g. the Masai in Africa and in India they also have major religious significance.

These cows are clearly evaluating the intruder - me and a camera.
All their senses are in operation.

Senses in cattle

Sight

• Cattle have a well-developed eye that sees some colour but not as much as humans and they generally avoid bright light if given preference.
• The position of each eye allows very wide peripheral vision along the side that alerts the cow to movement, which is then investigated using binocular vision.
• A good side view is useful for watching where other animals are during grazing with head down. So cattle have nearly 360° vision as they move around when grazing.
• Using two eyes, the cow has a much narrower binocular vision (about 25-50°).
• We exploit the wide peripheral vision when moving stock using their "point of balance" just behind the shoulder and in the centre of their head.
• Cattle have a narrow blind spot at the rear where they are vulnerable, so they move a lot to keep checking it out.

The cow's blind spot. Warn them of your approach or risk being kicked

• A cow's eyes are designed to see down rather than up and when alarmed it will raise its head to investigate.
• A bull in fight response uses one eye to watch you, but its also getting his head ready for sideways swipe at same time.
• It has been accepted for a long time that cattle are colour blind or have a restricted colour range. The source of this statement is never quoted so has grown into folklore. Recent work by AgResearch at Ruakura training cows to follow yellow signs has been very successful so cattle can see colours. Cattle can also recognise the colour of peoples' clothing, especially if they are strangers who inflict pain or fear on them (e.g. vets).
  
• Cattle can recognise different people from their shape. They can also count, and associate more than one person with pain or stress of injections or forced handling.
  

Hearing

• Cattle are sensitive to high frequency sounds which people cannot hear.
  
• These high frequency sounds can increase arousal and low tones are more relaxing for cattle.
• Music is regularly used in milking parlours to provide cows with a familiar background noise. It is no more than that and is useful in drowning out other sudden sound that may be stressful.
  

Smell

• Cattle have a better sense of smell than people.
• The smell of blood can cause great panic and is very obvious when cattle see others slaughtered.
• It's also seen when cattle pass paddocks treated with blood and bone fertiliser but for some unknown reason, this panic is not consistent.
• Cattle remember smells, e.g. when an operator who smokes has caused given them injections. When they smell the next smoker they remember the pain and react accordingly.
  

Touch

• Cows have a very sensitive skin and can shake flies off from localised areas.
• Cows respond to touch and use it as an important form of communication among each other. You see it where mutual grooming is important in cattle, especially in mature animals.
• Dams lick and groom their calves right up to weaning.
• Touch is important to warn cows at close quarters where you are when they cannot see you - e.g. when milking.
• One really bad experience by cattle will put them off all people for a considerable time till a positive human/animal bond is restored. They remember bad experiences for a long time.
  

Sleep

• Adult cattle do actually sleep but only for very short intervals.
• The sleeping pose is with all four legs tucked underneath themselves and head turned to face the rear.
• Cattle must be well settled and comfortable before they will sleep. This has big implications for housed stock and design of cubicles so they have enough room for comfort and to avoid injury.
• If animals are disturbed at night, they will sleep more during the day.
  

Communication

Head bunt used to remind other cow of its lower status

• Cattle use a range of body signals to communicate with each other.
• They use their heads to bunt others out of the way. So we talk about the 'bunt order' in cattle and 'peck order' in birds.
  
• Their eyes have a key role and use "eyes down" to show submission, and "eyes up" to show confidence when moving into a group.
• Cows on heat use mounting behaviour to signal to other cows and the bull.
• Bulls use at least 5 signals with their heads:
• Normal relaxed position.
• Friendly approach before grooming by another cow.
• Threat approach - watching you with one eye and snorting.
• Submissive avoidance - pretending not to look.
• Withdrawal from conflict with head toss, snort and voiding faeces.
• Tail. It is raised high in play or great panic.
• The female's tail also slightly raised in heat and mild panic.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Deer Part 1

DEER BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Farmed deer: Terminology: Senses: Social behaviour: Feeding

By Dr Clive Dalton

Deer in New Zealand
Man has hunted the various species of deer since early times. Deer were introduced into New Zealand and released by the early settlers for sport and are now classed as noxious pests in some areas because of damage they do to bush and exotic forest. Shooting and poisoning are the main control methods.
So now in New Zealand we have feral deer and farmed deer and they provide:

• Meat - farmed venison and game venison.
• Skins for clothing and housing.
• Hard antler for tools.
• Velvet antler for medicines.
• Other body parts for special markets - e.g. penises (pizzles), sinews, tails, teeth.
• Hunting - for meat and trophies (tourism)
  

Commercial deer farming

Commercially farmed Red deer

• Commercial farming of feral deer developed in 1960s and 1970s when hunters turned to capturing deer alive and trapping them for sale to deer pioneers who believed they could farm deer like cattle and sheep.
  
• NZ now has a thriving export market for venison, velvet and deer by-products.
• Previously the market was for "game" meat, but now the export market demands slaughter in licensed premises under strict animal health and welfare conditions.
• The velvet market is a secondary market, and prices fluctuate greatly. Strict veterinary and animal welfare standards (Codes of Welfare) are now in place for the harvesting of velvet from stags.
• Harvesting velvet is seen as inhumane in many parts of the world, and an affront to the dignity of the stag.
• The deer species farmed in New Zealand are mainly Red deer, Fallow deer and Wapiti (Elk), but there are also Sika, Rusa, Sambar, White tail and the rare Pere David.

Sika deer in a zoo - not farmed commercially

Terminology
This varies with the species:

• Red Deer - stags, hinds, calves, they "roar"
• Fallow - bucks, does, fawns, they "roar or grunt"
• Wapiti - bull, cow/hind, calf, they "bugle"
  

The innate behaviour of deer

• Are NZ deer domesticated? At this stage it would be best to say no. They are still wild as judged by their fight/flight distance and over time with selection, they should become less fearful of humans and hence fully domesticated.
• There is some selection for temperament going on by some breeders, but it's not very intense at this time.
• Deer have evolved in the forest fringes where they graze the open pastures and then take cover in the trees which they browse. They can do great damage to trees by eating out the top leader.
  
• Deer will seek out shade for both comfort and security and this is seen as a major welfare problem as on many deer farms shade is not available.
• Deer use speed to escape threats and predators, so they are very fleet of foot and nervous.
• Deer also like to wallow, especially stags during the rut.
• So it would be easy to conclude that farming deer is depriving them of the 5th freedom to show normal behaviour and are stressed. Experienced deer farmers will disagree with this.
  

Senses


Sight

• Deer have very acute vision.
  
• They recognise their usual handlers but strangers cannot fool them even when wearing their regular handler's clothes. They are clearly very alert to shapes and pattern of movement.
• They have wide monocular vision with much narrower binocular sight.
• They are very alert to movement on their periphery when grazing, and immediately raise their heads to check the threat with their binocular sight.
• They notice very small changes in their environment e.g. when traps are set for them.
• Their long neck aids their ability to see threats from a distance - predators moving in the grass.
• They have a blind spot at the rear like cattle, but they use their very mobile neck to check behind them all the time.
  

Smell

• Deer have an acute sense of smell.
• They can be easily panicked by smells that they associate with death or danger, especially of being trapped.
  

Social behaviour

• Wild deer have a clearly defined grazing area or home range. They graze these home ranges in defined social groups of mainly females. Different groups may overlap and share the same home range.
• At mating in autumn the stag forms and leads a harem of females. In the wild the areas where the stag gathers his harem are well established (and used each year) within these home ranges. The are called "stands".
• Farmed deer running in mobs have a social order of sorts. It is clearer among mobs of males than females, as fights among males are more obvious.
  
• But there is a clear matriarchal dominance in females and this may be of significance at mating for the attention of the male.
• The social order is sorted out by head butting and threat displays using a lot of body language.
• In confrontations, deer tilt their head and neck, partly rise on their hind legs, then rise fully and thrash with their front hooves.
• They grind their teeth as a sign of stress and threat. After teeth grinding, look out for the rearing and feet flying.
  
• They will also bite with head tilted, upper lips raised, tongue protruded showing the whites of their eyes and hissing.
  
• Deer are a classical lying-out species and hinds with young fawns hide them in long grass or scrub. The fawn communicates by a high-pitched squeaking sound when stressed.
• The males use their antlers to thrash bushes and gouge the bark of trees to mark their presence and territory and feral stags can cause devastation to forests in this behaviour.
• All deer species/breeds use flight to escape predators except Wapiti (Elk) who are not as fleet of foot and have evolved by spending a lot of time standing in water. Elk tend to back in to a safe corner and confront the threat head on with their large size.
  

Feeding

• Deer are ruminants and enjoy a wide range of diets from lush clover to woody browse. They are grazers and browsers too and appreciate variety in their diet.
• Farmed deer have similar feed preferences to cattle and sheep and this has allowed their rapid adaptation to farming.
• They enjoy grain and concentrate feed and this is ideal to tame them. They soon learn to follow a food truck and individuals will learn to eat out of your hand or bucket.
• In the wild in cold climates, they learn to survive on mosses and strip bark off trees in winter.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Horse Part 1

HORSE BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Domestication: Senses: Teeth problems

By Dr Clive Dalton

Horse origins

• The ancient ancestors of the horse were small many-toed animals that then evolved one toe to became a hoof. Two million years ago the horse developed into Equus species in North America from which it spread to the old world and South America across the land bridges.
  
• Then there was more general migration and diversification, They developed into a very mobile animal that uses speed, bucking and kicking to escape predators. The horse is a panic species!
• Of the 5 main domestic animal species, the horse was the last to be domesticated. It is least affected by human manipulation and artificial selection.
  
• The horse was first used by man for food, then transport, riding for military use, then for draft power and transport, and finally for recreational riding which is a major use today.
  
• It was thought that Mongolian tribes were first to domesticate the horse and by 1500 BC different types of horse were evolving.
  
• The problem was to find out where this happened. Research in 2009 has confirmed that the Botai culture in Kazakhstan were using horses for for transport and milking them between 3700BC and 3100BC.
  
• Prezewalski horses are still found in that area as the last survivor of the early horse.
  

Uses


The horse still provides a range of services for humans:

• Transport - they carry people in both war and peace.
• Power - they pull loads and farm implements.
• Meat - horse flesh is popular in many cultures.
• Milk. Mares milk still supports families in some cultures.
• Hides and skins are still valuable.
• Hair from mains and tails is still in demand.
• Entertainment - racing and betting.
• Sport and competition.
  
• Ceremonial uses.
  
• The pleasure in ownership of a noble animal for leisure.
  

Horse senses

Sight

• The horse has keen sensory perception developed from its evolution and it has one of the largest eyes of any modern animal.
• It has a special light intensifying device which reflects light back on to the retina, giving good vision in poor light. In the wild horses are active at dawn and dusk.
• The eye structure allows it to see the slightest movement so will panic easily by something on the periphery of its vision.
• Having binocular vision in front of 60-70 means the horse needs to move the head to see where it is going. It can only focus fully for a short distance ahead - about 2m.
• This is a problem in jumping - it focuses then must remember and trust its memory about the object it has seen.
• Horses have a wide monocular (panoramic) view of the horizon and can see about 340-360 around it.
• As the eyes are on the sides of its head, the horse does not normally see objects in depth. It sees them like we do with one eye closed. It sees them with less detail than humans but is more sensitive to movement.
• The eyes are perfectly placed for cropping pasture, which it does this for half its life!
• The horse's visual area is more towards the ground than the sky but it can raise its head quickly and focus on objects at various distances away.
• Colour vision is still debated. Some work shows the horse can see colour starting from yellow, green, blue and red in that order.
• A horse needs time to adjust vision between light and dark which is worth remembering when loading horses from bright light into dark transport vehicles.
• The horse has a blind spot behind its head which increases when the head is lifted. So it's important to allow the horse to move its head to see objects in its way.
• Horses are generally reluctant to enter dark enclosures but quieten down when in there and feel safe looking out into the light. Horses can often be blindfolded to quieten them.
• Don't look a strange horse in the eye as it's a threatening pose.
• A horse will go in the direction it is looking so point it correctly.
  

Hearing

• Horses have a broader range of hearing than humans and can hear up to 25,000 cycles per second (cps) and have acute hearing in the high and low frequencies.
• Humans have noticed horses' early response to earthquake vibrations.
• Horses have 16 muscles that control the ears which they can swivel 180 degrees.
• When ears laid fully back this cuts their hearing severely.
• Horses are alert at all times except in deep sleep which only occurs in very short spells.
  

Smell

• Smell is well developed in the horse and this is why wild horses are difficult to stalk except upwind.
• The horse has a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) and the Flehmen response is very obvious in stallions sniffing mares on heat.
• Horses meet nose to nose and smell each other.
• They are very sensitive to smells in their environment, e.g. dung, dirty troughs, musty feed, bad water and certain plants.
  
• Smell is very important in feed selection.
  

Taste

• Horses are attracted by sweetness and sugar so molasses, water melon rind, peaches and beer are all relished.
• They (especially foals) reject salty, sour and bitter tastes at about the same level of acceptance as humans.
  

Touch

• Touch is one of the most acutely developed senses in the horse.
• They can sense a fly landing on any part of their body through their coat and flick it off.
• Horses are "inter-pressure" so when you apply pressure and move into the horse you will get reverse response.
• Horses push and barge each other in physical contact to communicate. You see this in mares and foals interacting.
• Horses respond to touch all over the body but especially around the head so ears and eyes are especially sensitive areas. They don't like their ears pulled.
• The upper lip and muzzle are very sensitive to tactile stimulus, and are equivalent to our fingers.
• The whiskers that grow from the muzzle and around the eyes in the horse are like an insect's antennae. They are especially useful in low light conditions when the horse is nosing around. You should not cut them off!
• Touch plays a major role in their social life and riders use it to signal intentions to the horse.
• So when leading a horse - be positive.
• Horses have a "point of balance" as described for cattle behind shoulder and in centre of head.
  

Memory

• Horses have very good long-term memory which is useful for an animal that grazes over a large territory.
• It can be seen when a horse will remember a place where it got a fright and will continually shy at that place for years afterwards.
• But its memory can be variable and reinforcement in training is important.
• A horse will learn nothing when under stress - as the survival urge will blank out memory.

Swimming

• Horses are strong swimmers when forced to enter deep water.
• They swim with a dog-paddle action.
• In training there is no problem for a fit horse to swim around a pool for 30 minutes.
  

Problems with teeth

• Cheek teeth in the horse may become unevenly worn so they don't grind feed efficiently and can cause ulcers on the tongue.
• The signs of this include dropping feed from the mouth while chewing, bulging of the cheeks caused by wads of food becoming impacted between the teeth and cheek, and/or green staining around the mouth caused by drooling of saliva.
• Overgrown edges on cheek teeth are common in elderly ponies and horses.
• Treatment is by rasping the sharp edges and it takes a trained person like a veterinarian or a horse dentist to do this effectively.
• To prevent problems, it's wise to have the cheek teeth of ponies and horses rasped regularly, perhaps once a year or so by a veterinarian or horse dentist.
• Periodontal disease can affect cheek teeth. It's caused by infections of the gum and supporting structures around the cheek-teeth roots.
  
• In severe cases the bone becomes swollen and sore, then the animal is reluctant to chew its feed and it gets thin.
• If you suspect any problems, veterinary care is needed to avoid behavioural and welfare problems.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Donkey Part 2

DONKEY BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 2

Donkeys & horses: Senses: Social structure: Communication

By Dr Clive Dalton



A donkey is not a horse !

• Never call a donkey a horse. It will never forgive you!
• The donkey is more related to the zebra, which is obvious from its shape and the way it moves (its gait).
• The donkey was bred from wild African asses making it the only domestic animal to come from Africa. The oldest donkey remains have been found 5000-6000 years ago in Egypt with later specimens found in Mesopotamia and Iran.
• There is a wide range of about 300 breeds of donkeys today. The largest is the Catalonian donkey, which is 17 hands high, is found in Spain. The Poitou is about 16 hh.
• The donkey has 62 chromosomes and the horse 64, so in theory they are genetically incompatible.
• Donkeys have been crossed with zebras to produce a "Zeedonk". These are sterile hybrids.
• Donkeys and horses can be crossed to produce the mule (male donkey Jack on mare) and the “hinny” (horse stallion on donkey Jenny). Both these are sterile hybrids and have 63 chromosomes. But there are exceptions as some female mules are fertile and will breed.
• Most donkeys and many mules lack the obvious saddle holding withers of the horse.
• The donkey's main and tail hair is stiff. It has no true forelock and the tail has short hair to switch more like a cow than a horse.
• The croup muscles of the donkey are usually less developed than the horse.
• Hooves of donkeys and mules are smaller than equal-sized horses and the pastern angle is greater.
• Donkeys have no chestnuts on their rear legs.
• Donkeys have slightly different larynx anatomy, and have smaller nostrils and nasal passages than equal sized horses.
  

Man and the donkey

• The donkey was one of the first animals to be domesticated and has served mankind well throughout the ages. The donkey is still doing valiant service as the primary beast of burden in many cultures today.
• Donkeys appear to have an innate trust of man, and very strong bonds build between donkeys and their owners because donkeys are a very social species.
• Donkeys have been used in times of war for transport and food. Owners stress the very special bond that can be built between donkey and caregiver and is much different between man and horse.
• Some breeders say that if you assume a donkey is a big dog, you'll go a long way to understanding their behaviour.
• Donkeys have shown that they can solve maze problems a lot faster than horses.
• Despite the donkey's role in man's civilisation, it still struggles to maintain a decent image among the human race. Our acceptance that the donkey is stupid, cunning and lazy is as alive and well today as it has been for the last two thousands years.
• Donkeys are not stupid and lazy - this image is caused by man's practice of ridiculing them, overloading them, and treating them with disrespect.
• Donkeys are smart and their owners need to recognise this. They will not move in situations they perceive as dangerous. This prevents a lot of accidents, eg in harness.
• Donkeys evolved in grasslands and are an animal of the open grasslands in warm dry climates.
• In the USA, donkeys and mules are becoming the fastest growing part of the recreational equine industry. Miniature donkeys are appealing to people who normally keep dogs and cats.
  

Donkey senses

Hearing

• Considered to be similar to the horse but the donkey's large ears have an added sound-gathering advantage.
• It's often claimed that the donkey has much more acute hearing than a horse and certainly a human.
  
• Like the horse, the donkey has the ability to move its ears to locate the source of the sound.
• Donkeys DO NOT like their ears pulled - their ears are very personal!
• Before a donkey will let you handle its ears freely, you need to build up a secure bond.
  
• The feral donkey is a very alert animal, aided by its acute hearing.
  

Smell

• The donkey's sense of smell is considered to be similar to the horse.
• It's said that donkeys can smell water over a mile away.
  
• Donkeys greet each other by smelling and blowing in each others nose. The smell of breath imparts important information to the donkey.
• So greeting donkeys by blowing up their noses is an effective way to reassure them that you are friendly.
  

Sight

• A donkey's sight is not as good as the horse, and like the horse donkeys have a blind spot immediately in front of the nose and behind the head.
• They have good peripheral vision with head down when grazing, but poor ability to see high objects.
• They have good binocular vision. Donkeys like the horse view any threats with their binocular vision.
• It is thought they have the same colour vision as the horse. They can clearly differentiate between the major colours.
• Donkeys don't seem to bother with direct eye contact. It seems to be less important than in horses.
  

Touch

• As in the horse - donkeys have whiskers near their eyes and on their muzzle which carry nerves and act as touch receptors.

Taste

• Donkeys have a very sweet tooth, and are very partial to fruit.
• They love walnuts and will crack them and spit out the shells.
• Like the horse they will not eat musty feed, and will not eat out of dirty containers so their ability to smell must be acute.
  

Donkey's gait

• Donkeys are naturally slow movers, and impatient humans find this frustrating.
• They do not show all the different gaits of the horse.
• At speed they move like a zebra or a sheep in a bouncy gait and appear to have all four feet off the ground at the same time.
  

Social structure

• Donkeys are very social animals. A lone donkey kept as a pet needs a friend of either another donkey, horse or other animal.
• Feral donkeys live in small bands of females with their current and previous year's female offspring.
• There is a strong bond between mother and offspring, established very soon after birth. Foals are weaned when the next foal is born.
• These bands will contain some juvenile males, but mature males are generally solitary except at mating time when they form harems which they defend against competitors.
• Fights among males for control of the harem can be very savage, with kicking and biting any part they can get hold of. The long ears are very vulnerable.
• Whereas horsed flee from danger, donkeys do not and stand and face up to the threat or predator. They will bite and kick with both front and rear feet, and stand with heads high, nostrils flared and teeth bared. And they add their loud bray to their collection of defences.
• Donkeys are natural followers. Often in a group grazing in a field, when called they'll form up in line to be led by the lead donkey, rather than making their own way to the caller.
• Donkeys have very sensitive ears and love them ears scratched. If you rub the ears gently from the poll area, the donkey slowly lowers its head and appears to dose off in ecstasy.
  

Communication

• The donkey's bray is unique and the sound travels for very long distances.
• But they also communicate with a variety of snorts, grunts, wheezes and whuffles which seem to vary between individuals.
  
• The variations in the bray that humans can detect must denote different information to other donkeys.
• Jacks bray most frequently and loudest.
• Grunts are antagonistic and usually accompanied by assertive body language like tail lashing, chin jerking or stomping.
• Snorting shows excitement and wuffling is used by a Jenny to call her foal or when inviting another donkey for some mutual grooming.
• Jennies use an additional low-pitched and gentle wuffle to communicate with their newborn foals.
  
• Like the horse, donkeys use a wide range of body language to communicate.
• Donkeys can indicate their mood with their head, angle of neck, body and tail.
• The way they move too gives clear messages from the quiet amble of the Jenny and foal to the aggressive chase of the Jack after a predator or Jenny in heat.
• Around the eyes and ears of a donkey is a very personal area - so avoid touching them on first greeting.
• Donkeys mutual groom each other, standing together using their teeth along their necks, withers and shoulders scratching the hair gently and gently nibbling with their teeth.
• Scratching a donkey under its chin is a very effective way to make friends with the animal.

Zoning out

• When donkey foals have been frightened, they have been observed to 'zone out' by slipping into a catatonic state.
• The advice is to 'back off' until the animal comes around again.
  

Donkey - human bond
There are frequent reports of donkeys showing great stress when losing a foal, a companion or when changing owners. When no donkeys are available they will form lasting bonds with horses, goats, sheep, camelids, dogs and cats and even fowls.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Pigs Part 1

PIG BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Senses: Social behaviour: Learning: Abnormal behaviour: Moving pigs

By Dr Clive Dalton

Man and pig

• The pig is farmed in a wide range of farming conditions around the world, except in Moslem countries. It evolved mainly in China and Asia, and our New Zealand Kunikuni pig shows all the traits of these early Chinese ancestors.
• The many types of wild ancestor of the modern pig were domesticated to provide meat and they took well to confinement and being omnivorous and were useful to clean up human waste and garbage.
• If was the first animal apart from the hen, to be subjected to very intensive housing and management.
• Pigs have now become fashionable pets in some modern cultures.
  

Pig senses

Pet pig - house trained and sits on command

Sight

• Pigs are forest dwellers and nocturnal feeders in the wild.
• Their eyes are highly developed and they can see colour like other higher mammals.
• Their sight can be greatly reduced by their floppy ears which act as protection when rooting in scrub.
• The pig's other well-developed senses compensate for any limitations in vision.
• Sight is important in reproduction as the boar uses visual clues as to the oestrous state of the sow.
  

Smell

• The pig has an acute sense of smell, exploited by man in hunting truffles.
• It has a well-developed olfactory lobe in the brain.
• The design of the pig's nose and strong neck give it very powerful rooting abilities.
• Feral pigs use scent to follow trails and can smell feed and carrion from a considerable distance.
• They can locate each other in the wild by smell when spaced out foraging.
• Smell and taste are thought to be important in recognition, as at first meeting pigs sniff each other in the face, along the line of the jaw and around the eyes and ears.
• Smell is very important in piglets to find their own chosen teat for sucking.
  

Hearing

• Pigs have extremely good hearing and clearly recognise a wide range of sounds used in communication between them.
• They can be easily panicked by unfamiliar sounds - which can cause major problems in intensive housing e.g. when jet planes fly over or thunder.
• They must be able to sense very low pitched sound by reports of their early reactions to earthquakes.

Taste

• Pigs have clear taste preferences.
• Creep feed for piglets is sweetened with sugar to encourage intake.
• Mature pigs love apples - they're a great means of getting a pig to follow you.
  

Vocalisation

• Pigs use a wide range of sound to communicate - probably developed because they evolved as forest dwellers.
• Young piglets squeak, grunt, bark and squeal.
• Older pigs use various grunts and squeals to indicate hunger, thirst, alarm, fear, terror, affection, calling a litter to suckle, courtship, and many others.
• Pigs respond very well to human communication, and soon seem to learn what human sounds mean. One researcher suggested that "uff uff" uttered with the lips and your face level and close to the pig was very successful in establishing friendship. To move pigs forward "choo choo" achieved interesting results.
• Pigs squeal can reach 112 decibels which can damage human hearing and stress the animals. Wearing ear muffs, especially at feeding time is essential in large intensive operations. A level of 85 decibels should be the limit aimed for in housing.
• The terror squeal of pigs when held by a nose strop is also damaging to hearing.
  

Social behaviour

• Pigs are very social animals but do not show tight herding behaviour. You soon learn this when trying to drive pigs!
• Wild pigs that are hunted are very nocturnal; otherwise they can be active at any time. Pigs farmed intensively are diurnal and active during the day because of the husbandry system.
• As they are den-living animals, social contact developed at birth is very important for the rest of the pig's life. Pigs enjoy the close company of mates.
• They develop a social rank very early within their litter by vicious blows with their needle teeth while fighting for teats. Farmers clip these teeth off to prevent damage to other piglets and to the sow.

• Pigs have many ways of communicating with each other - sound is the most important because of the bush environment in which they evolved.
• Twenty different calls have been identified - 6 of which can be identified by man such as the grunt, bark and squeal.
• Body language is also important at close quarters, especially in courtship.
• Feral pigs are usually found in groups of about 8 made up of 3 sows and their offspring. Males tend to be solitary.
• Groups of wild pigs have their own home range, and these can overlap with other bands of pigs.
• Pigs don't have sweat glands over their body so wallowing is a common behaviour in feral pigs in warm conditions. However, they'll also wallow and enjoy mud in cold climates.
• If water is deep enough outdoor pigs will swim.
• There is little social grooming in pigs as we know it in other animals. This is surprising as they enjoy rubbing and scratching so much. But they do nuzzle each other along the flank and back - areas they can't reach on their own.
• Lone pigs scratch these parts against objects in their territory.
• Pigs yawn like other farm animals, and this is often combined with stretching the back leg and closing the eyes.
• Pigs also shake themselves after a period of rest, especially if they've been lying in a group.
• Pigs regularly "tuck in" with their mates and by wriggling settle right down into the bedding.
• When growing pigs have selected their own temperatures, they chose warm afternoon temperatures and quite cool conditions at nights when they lie huddled with their mates for warmth.
• Pigs show a lot of play behaviour, and it's very common in young pigs when they leave the nest or lying area.
• They show great play behaviour especially when they go into a new environment as part of their exploration.
• Social play usually consists of fighting with selected littermates. Often one animal runs away eliciting a chase by mates.
• A piglet playing by itself will whirl round trying to scratch itself and may jump up and down on the spot.
• Pigs are great investigators and play by lifting and moving objects on the ground and throwing them in the air.
• With their sensitive nose, rooting is a favourite pastime and treasured finds are carried away with other pigs in pursuit.
  

Pig learning ability

• Pigs learn quickly and show great variation in their ability to learn and solve problems.
• Teaching pigs can be done easily by using mild electric shock avoidance, audio signals and feed rewards.
• They have been taught to control their heating and lighting regime - which saves human labour and reduce costs.
• This learning ability is moderately inherited so you could increase this trait in a herd through selection.
• Pigs quickly learn all the details of a new environment because of their well-developed exploratory behaviour. When tested in a maze, pigs are smarter explorers than any other farm animal. Depriving them of this natural ability can cause great stress as seen in pigs kept in barren concrete environments with no bedding to chew.
  

Pig-human interaction

• There is now plenty of research to show the benefits of pigs that have a strong relationship or bond with their human minders.
• The pigs have clearly been "tamed" and have responded to good handling.
• Taming is best done by quiet and gentle handling of young pigs at feeding time.
• Lay your hand on the pig's had or back, talk gently and scratch or stroke the animal. The best areas to touch are behind the ears, shoulders, along the back and down the sides.
• Pigs soon learn to enjoy this contact and will often lie down to enjoy it. Complete taming can be done in 2-3 weeks after which they will come when called.
  

Dunging behaviour

• Pigs are probably the cleanest and most orderly farm animal if their environment allows this, and if they have learned appropriate behaviours during their early rearing.
• Pigs defaecate and urinate regularly throughout the day and night in intensive housing although they rest a lot between 7pm and 6am the following morning.
• By 3 days old, piglets have learned not to dung where they sleep. After this age further dunging behaviour is learned from their dam - habits they maintain throughout life. A "dirty" sow that dungs and urinates on her bed will produce "dirty" piglets that do the same.
• Good dunging habits can be encouraged by a few management practices:
• When changing pigs from one pen to another, give them a run for a while before they enter the new pen. This will let them empty out and their first urge in the new pen will not be to defaecate and urinate.
• After moving, dampen the dunging area of the new pen, and put some dung from the old pen on it.
• Pigs that are scouring should have the problem fixed as they will have less control of their faeces and where it goes.
• If there are too few pigs in the pen, use temporary barriers to reduce space in the sleeping area so they are forced to dung elsewhere. Put fresh bedding on the sleeping area.
• A false roof maintaining warmth over the sleeping area will encourage them to rest there and they'll hopefully be less keen to foul the area.
• Cleaning their pen at night may help if the problem exists. After cleaning the fouled area, put some bedding and feed on it.
• Pen shape and the position of the feed and water sources can affect where pigs eliminate. Try moving troughs until the pigs modify their habits.

Abnormal pig behaviour

• Pigs show a long list of abnormal behaviour where stress is the major underlying cause.
• Tail biting
• Ear biting
• Cannibalism - killing and eating pen mates
• Belly nibbling
• Tongue rolling
• Rubbing the nasal bone
• Rubbing snout
• Hyperactivity
• Massaging the anus
• Vacuum chewing
• Biting pen bars
• Rocking back and forward when tethered
  

The “runt“ pig and its problems

• It's difficult to describe in precise terms what a runt is. It's not necessarily a small piglet, as these can be the result of poor nutrition.
• These nutritional runts are commonly seen in large litters where pigs are not weaned until 5 or 8 weeks.
• Piglets can be runts because of their position in the uterus, where for some reason they have been deprived of nutrients. These runts never catch up, even with extra feeding as they are physiologically under-developed.
• As litter sizes increases and competition for milk and feed increases, the problem the runt has to survive and grow increases. Commercial pig farmers often see euthanasia as a cost-effective solution.
  

Moving pigs

• Pigs are den-living, home-loving animals and do not show any flocking/herding response when moved.
• In the wild, frightened pigs scatter and crouch in the undergrowth, or race back to their den. Domestic pigs still show this behaviour.
• They just don't like being moved - especially from their darkened den into bright outside light.
• Loading and unloading are the most stressful part of transport when pigs are pushed, dragged by their ears, have their tails pulled, or goaded physically or electrically. (Note that electric prodders should not be used on pigs in New Zealand).
• Suggestions for loading and transport of pigs:
• Select the pigs for market the night before, and hold them in an unfamiliar pen.
• Reduce feed before transport but not water.
• Move them in the early morning.
• Don't attempt to rush, abuse or punish them.
• They'll go better up a ramp or along level ground.
• Avoid having to move them down a ramp.
• Keep ramp sides fully covered so they can't see through.
• Spread some bedding along their path you want them to go.
• Spread some feed or slices of apple along the path and up the ramp.
• Use a hand-held pig board to approach them - this also protects your legs. Use any solid barrier to bring up behind them.
• Don't do anything like pulling ears or tails that will make them squeal. Use a canvas slapper so as not to bruise them.
• To move an awkward individual - put a plastic bucket over its nose and eyes and reverse it along.
  

Transporting pigs

• Transport can be very stressful for pigs. Here are some recommendations to reduce stress:
• Don't transport pigs that are not familiar with each other.
• Provide plenty of ventilation in the truck.
• Avoid transporting when temperatures exceed 28 C.
• Avoid long parking periods on hot sunny days. Always park in the shade.
• Avoid physical exertion and excitement before and during transport.
• Do not feed during the 12 hours before transport.
• Put the pigs direct from their pen on to the truck.
• Transport the following pigs separately:
• Young piglets
• Sows with piglets
• Adult boars
• Unfamiliar groups of pigs
• Sows in advanced pregnancy