Animal behaviour and welfare: Poultry Part 1

POULTRY BEHAVIOUR PART 1

Origin: Senses: Social behaviour

By Dr Clive Dalton

Poultry origin and behaviour

• Modern poultry were domesticated fairly early in man's development from wild jungle fowl still found today in open forest habitats throughout the world. The ancestors of the domestic fowl soon learned to live with man in confined areas.
• Domestication and early selection of these birds developed such traits as leanness, aggression, activity, pecking, leg slashing, social responsiveness and particular colours of feathers that were used for decoration.
• In later historic times such as in the Roman Empire, egg and meat production received emphasis and was greatly improved.
• The modern laying hen and broiler chicken have both attracted more concern about their behaviour and welfare than any other farm animal.
• This is because of the intensive systems in which they are kept - seen as "factory farming" which has gained an international negative image.
  

Senses

Sight

• Chick embryos respond to light as early as 17 days after the start of incubation.
• A hen cannot rotate its eye very much but they can see a field of 300 , with a binocular field of 26.
• Hens follow moving objects using the mobility of their head.
• Their acuity (sharpness) is good and they have good distance vision.
• They characteristically lift their heads before jumping and tests have shown that they can discriminate between squares, triangles and red and black dots.
• Studies show newly-hatched chicks prefer to peck at blue objects rather than green or orange ones, although orange is preferred before green but not before red.
• Chicks can differentiate between red-dyed liquid and blood. Blood was very aversive.
• Chicks learn quickly to avoid coloured feed if it makes them ill, and prefer to peck at round rather than flat objects.
  

Smell

• Not much is known about how important smell is to poultry.
• Hens are not keen on food that smells of mould or is sour, so presumably smell is involved in this feed rejection.
• It's suggested that birds can definitely smell blood.
  

Hearing

• Hens don't have an ear lobe but they have a well-developed ear.
• Calls produced by hens range from 250 cpm (the broody hen "cluck") to about 3000 cpm (the distress call).
• Studies confirmed hens can hear sounds as high as 8000 cpm.
• Hens hear in a range from 60-11950Hz with highest sensitivity from 815-2000 Hz which is their normal hearing range.
  

Taste

• Hens have about 340 taste buds mainly on the palate and floor of their oral cavity.
• They are rather indifferent to sugars but can detect glucose to about 2.5% in solution.
• They tolerate a range of acid and alkaline tastes, and are sensitive to and avoid salty feeds.
• Taste determines whether a hen accepts or rejects a feed and similarly to water.
• Hens can detect water temperature differences of 2.8 C. They will reject water that rises 5.5 C above their body temperature although they will readily drink freezing water.
  

Touch

• Stroking, rotating and turning hens upside down will immobilise a hen for various periods of time.
• In this state, although fully alert to their sensory surroundings, they can be conditioned or gentled to humans or other frightening objects.
• After return to normal, they will show reduced fear to the conditioned object.
• Touching the back of a hen will often cause it to respond by a sexual crouch, especially if it is low in social rank.
  

Learning ability

• Hens soon learn to pull, tug, peck and scratch, and their general natural activity means they will work at tasks for quite long periods.
• Hens have limited ability to generalise, i.e. they stick to the task in hand and don't drift off target.
• They are good at visual discrimination tasks.
• Their limited flexibility may be an advantage in intensive conditions where they will not be bored as quickly as a species like the pig that can generalise.
• In maze tests hens ranked after man, pig, dog, goat and before rat, rabbit, cat and turtle in ability to remember.
• In a Hebb-Williams closed-field test, hens ranked after dogs, cows, sheep, pigs, cats, rats and ferrets but better than pigeons, guinea pigs or possums.

Social behaviour

Vocal communication

• Being a social bird from the open forest, the hen has developed a wide range of sounds for communication.
• Studies have classified 12 chick calls and 22 calls by adults. These range from clucks, cackles, chirps and cries to keep in contact with mates.
• Calls heard most often and recognised by humans are food calls, predator alarms, pre- and post-laying calls and roosters crowing. Others are more specific which humans find hard to identify.
• Another classification describes these:
• Vocal calls related to fear and predators
• Physiological calls to do with brooding, feeding, contact and pleasure
• Signals expressing pain, frustration, fighting and crowing.
• There's a well-recognised daily pattern of crowing near dawn followed by feeding calls, egg-laying calls and finally roosting calls. Chicken distress calls immediately get the attention of their broody mother, and the regular "cluck -cluck" is a reassuring call from the mother to the chicks.
• Large groups of hens can create very high noise levels. They are around 72-87dB at normal times, 73-100 dB at feeding and 75-85 dB during egg laying.
• A study showed that laying hens were affected by levels above 83dB, while higher levels induced fear and panic.
  

Body posture

• When hens can see each other, they communicate by body postures e.g. head up or down, tail up or down, feathers spread or not.
• The tail is especially important and studies of feral birds showed that they stood upright with tail erect with wings diamond-pointed almost vertically down. This is called "wing-down alert".
• Body postures are particularly important to dominant males to send messages to his harem and possible competitors for his job.
• Individual recognition.Studies have shown that birds recognise each other using a combination of comb, head and wattle. Single elements were more difficult for hens to recognise, but the comb was the simplest.
• Colour changes to plumage were noticed, with intense colours more easily seen than pale colours.
• Only abrupt and very dramatic changes cause a hen to be treated as a stranger.
  

Pecking and peck order

• Pecking is very much a species-specific behaviour of hens. Hens peck to:
• Release them from the shell.
• To find feed and eat it.
• To drink.
• To obtain space.
• To get recognition from others.
• To mate.
• And many more highly sophisticated actions.
• Hens maintain a personal space around their heads and keep a distance from each other by holding their heads at an angle and maintaining a specific body orientation.
• If a direct head-to-head stance is taken, then pecking will ensue.
• The main purpose of pecking is in eating and it's a very precisely tuned movement of the head and neck, the feed being first picked up and then in a further movement of the head, it is swallowed.
• Incorrect timing of these movements would severely jar the neck. The bird's binocular vision is important in judging the distance to peck with the eye membranes closed at the moment of impact.
• The relationship of body stance and head position is important during pecking attacks. These include threats in which one bird lifts its head above the level of the other bird's head, then pecks the comb, head, neck or nape, wattles and then chases the subordinate away.
• If two birds face up to each other to fight, they peck, kick with their feet and slash with their spurs. Crouching or running away shows submission. These fights are not common outdoors but they increase as stocking rates increase towards 400 square cm/bird.
• In free-living birds, pecking is greatly reduced when males are present, as presumably the peck order is more clearly established.
• Pecking is often greatest in adolescent hens and observations have shown the incidence to be 30-50% greater on floors than in cages. Pecking was 70% higher when males were absent.
• Practical suggestions to help stabilise a peck order quickly to avoid any negative impact on egg production are:
• Form new groups of hens by mixing them before they start laying.
• Do not revolve birds around groups - leave them settled.
• Provide plenty of feed and watering points and plenty of floor space when the flock is settling.
• If two groups have to be mixed, put equal numbers of each subgroup together.
• Make sure males have been together in a group before mixing with the hens.
• Putting a male among hens will reduce pecking.
• Much of the pecking in caged birds occurs during feeding bouts, and depends on the feeder space and number of birds in the cage.
  

Dust bathing

• Hens love to dust bath, and it is clearly an innate behaviour.
  
• Dust bathing behaviour actions are even seen by birds bred with no feathers.
• We assume that hens dust bathe to control parasites and align their feathers. Normally free-living hens spend their time dispersed except when it comes to dust bathing, which they seem to love to do communally.
• Dust bathing is also thought to be a type of vacuum activity seen in birds that have been released from cages after at least 100 hours without a bath, or in birds with previous experience of the practice.
  
• Dust bathing usually starts with pecking into an area of dry dust, squatting in it, turning and raising dust into the feathers and then shaking it out again.
  

Preening and feather care

• In preening, the hen raises the feathers and cleans them by stroking and nibbling them with the beak.
• Grooming in the hen is described as actions related to maintaining body surface including preening with the beak, scratching with the foot, dust bathing and oiling.
• Oil is produced from the urophygial gland near the tail and birds use their beak to spread oil from it over their feathers.
• Hens preen or groom to remove lice, and females are more efficient groomers than males.
• Hens also spend more time grooming and using their oil gland than cocks.
  

Other comfort behaviours

• Bill wiping is seen after birds have been eating wet mash.
• The bird wipes one side of the beak on the ground, and in one continuous movement wipes the other side.
• Unilateral stretching of the leg and wing is also common comfort behaviour along with wing flapping while standing still.
  

Roosting or perching

• The feet of a bird are designed for holding on to branches while resting and roosting.
• The wild jungle fowl roosts up off the ground in a communal roost in the centre of its territory.
• Wild birds will also perch at different levels.
• Depriving birds of these behaviours is one of the main concerns with modern poultry husbandry.
  

Disclaimer

This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Poultry Part 5

POULTRY BEHAVIOUR PART 5

Meat chickens: Management

By Dr Clive Dalton

The meat (broiler) chicken

• The broiler chicken industry shows what can be achieved by applied science. Geneticists and nutritionists have cooperated to produce a bird that takes 40 days to mature instead of 80 days.
• It converts 1.95 - 2.20kg of feed into 1kg of body weight from which 0.7kg of carcass is produced. These values are constantly being improved.
• At day 1 a modern broiler weighs 45g and by day 42 it weighs 2200g - a 50 times increase in weight.
  
• Any lowering of performance will lower profits, so producers are very conscious of possible problems, many of which are expressed in behaviour of the birds.
• Profit is all about rapid growth, good feed conversion efficiency and low death rates. Below are some important husbandry pointers to profit and optimal welfare for the birds.
  

Management for good broiler welfare

• Adequate drinkers are essential and should be checked regularly.
• Good feeder design is important to allow the small birds to eat, prevent waste and blockages regardless of the type of feed.
• Broilers will eat more in a shorter time than non-meat birds. They have longer resting times and hence convert feed to live weight more efficiently.
• Birds should have access to food and water within about 2m of their area and there should be sufficient access to allow low-dominance and shy birds to feed.
• Physical form of the feed affects intake. Factors like whether the feed is hard or soft, and whether it's meal, crumbs or pellets as well as the size of the pellets.
• Removing stale feed and regular topping up of feeders is important whether manual or mechanical.
• Birds need good potable water free from contaminants, and if the water temperature rises, water intake will drop.
• Checking routines on all mechanical equipment and failsafe mechanisms with operator warnings are basic in any production plant.
• Good ventilation is essential, as high levels of ammonia and carbon monoxide can be serious. If the smell of ammonia is strong, then the ventilation system needs checking.
• The atmosphere should be dry and temperatures optimal with little variation.
• Stocking density. The most important time to get stocking rate right is in the last week or so before slaughter when if there are problems, greatest financial losses will occur.
• With current bird genotypes and management systems around 36-38 kg of live weight/square meter is recommended as a maximum in the Code of Welfare No. 22. At not time during the growing period must stocking rate exceed 40kg live weight/square meter.
• Chicks should be trained with a blackout period of about 15 minutes in each 24 hours to prevent panic is lights fail.
• There is great welfare concern over the catching and transport of broiler chickens. See the Code of Welfare No.22 for information.
  

Free range broilers

• The negative image of intensive broilers has opened up a market for more free-range meat chickens.
• As these birds run outdoors, all the problems associated with free-range egg production will apply.
  

Cattle farm husbandry – stockyards and handling tips

Cattle, farming, husbandry, stockyards for cattle, loading ramps basic principles, helpful construction suggestions, stand off and feed pads

By Dr Clive Dalton

Loading ramps
Having to build a set of yards for handling and loading cattle on to trucks can be an expensive exercise, but there is no avoiding it unless you can use your neighbour’s yards. Hand-pushed ramps on wheels used for sheep won’t do for cattle other than young calves.

Using old broken-down yards is a real danger to you and the stock, as you never know which bits are going to collapse next. Truck operators are now well within their rights to refuse to accept your business if facilities are not safe.

Make sure that any ramp used allows trucks to back up leaving no gaps for legs to slip down, and always keep checking for protruding nails, as they can work their way out over time.

Nails on yard that were never fully knocked in.
Waiting to damage both stock and handlers

Cattle yards - some basic principles

• Build on a level well-drained site.
• Cattle move best up a slope but it complicates building. So don’t make a big issue of this – build on a level site where possible.
• Have a good clear entrance to the yards at right angles to a fence so stock will go in easily.
• Circular yards and curved races are ideal for cattle movement but in small yards they add complication in construction and cost. Amateur builders should stick to building square things!
• Have a holding pen that will take all or most of your herd. If it won’t take them all comfortably, then you’ll need a larger area to confine stock like a small paddock near the yards.
• Don’t pack animals too tightly into yards – it’s dangerous for them, you, and the yards. Having a fence collapse and the cattle bursting out in panic at a critical moment is a terrifying experience!
• Have a small forcing pen before the race so cattle see only the one option of moving into the race. Stock like to see a clear-way ahead of them.

Example of using a gate to make a forcing pen for small herd of quiet cattle.

• The race is where they can be held tightly in Indian-file, head to tail. Calves can be held side by side.
• Close-board the sides of the race so animals can only see a clear way ahead. But don’t do it all as you may need some rails to climb out in a hurry some time.
• Have a good strong gate at the end of the race to keep cattle in. There will be a lot of pressure on this gate as cattle lean back on it. It needs a very strong catch on it, but one that can be easily opened.

A good solid gate at end of race

• Smooth the sharp edges off the top rail.

Shows edge smoothed off top rail for when you lean over.
Note the big galvanised nails holding the rail; should also be fixed by wire stapled
on to prevent twisting in the sun.

• It’s essential to have a good strong and safe head bail on the end of this race. Make sure it cannot be lifted off by an upset animal, so have pins through the ends of the hinges or reverse the top gudgeon.
• Have a vet gate to give access to the rear of a beast when it’s in the headbail.
• Have a couple of pens beyond the head bail so animals can be drafted and held separately.
• Concrete the crush pen and race and put road metal in the rest of the yards.
• Have cat-walks or narrow platforms on the outside of the crush pens and race to stand on so you can lean over safely into the pen to work.

Catwalk to stand on for treating cattle in the race. Note bird netting to prevent slipping.

• Put chicken netting on the catwalks to stop operators slipping mainly in wet weather.
• All rails should be wired as well as nailed and excess bolt threaded heads sawn off.
• Have gates that open fully so stock cannot get stuck behind them.
• Gate catches should be easy to get at from both sides, with self-closing latches where possible.
• Gudgeons holding gate hinges need to have bolt through them to prevent them being lifted off by cattle.

Safety bolt in gudgeon to prevent gate being lifted off

• No hinges should protrude to bruise animals or people.
• Have a weather-proof box for Tb cards on the loading ramp.
• Build a cover over the race to shelter stock and workers from rain and sun.
• Have a rubbish bin and get people to use it. Remember to empty it too. It’s a great treasure chest to let the vet see what products you have been using!
• Have a decent first aid box protected from the weather and make sure it contains the appropriate items and not just nesting starlings!
• Have a mobile phone at the yards.
  

General handling tips

Having to get in with big cattle to drench them can be dangerous
It's a hard physical job!

• Cattle walk normally at around 4km/hr and a lame beast walks at about 2km/hr. Bikes and ATVs don’t like going at these speeds neither do young riders on high-powered machines or tractors!
• When cattle are about to be yarded, park all vehicles and tie up all dogs well away from the action.
• Drive the stock in on foot and give them plenty of time to see where they are going.
• Throw some hay into the yards to attract them in if they are wary.
• If stock get stirred up and won’t go in, leave them to settle for 10-15 minutes before trying again.
• Talk to them in low tones when moving them, and only use loud shouting when necessary.
• You can’t let them refuse to go in for ever, so the final time, take them up to the entrance and hold them there long enough for them to see the entrance. Then making sure they cannot break back – put pressure on them with plenty of noise so they realise going in is their only option.
• Avoid leaving an animal on its own in a yard. The only exception may be a bull.
• Remove any “novelty” things around the yards that they have not seen before, especially things like plastic bags that blow around. That’s what the rubbish bin is for.
• Have a long stick or length of 25mm alkathene (about 1m long) with a small rag or flag on the end which cattle see as an extension to your arms. Use this for drafting as you can operate by standing well back from the stock. Hold two of these up high when moving bulls or agitated cows to increase your “threat” size.
• Some people love to poke stock with a stick through the rails as they pass along a race. Ban this practice or try it on them to see what it feels like.
• If you want to use an electric prodder- then only use it sparingly on stock like bulls that may not want to shift. Be careful when working with someone using a prodder as you may not see them prod the stock, but you’ll feel the beast’s reaction – a kick without a warning!
• Don’t get into pens among large cattle – work from the outside from a catwalk.
• Be especially wary of backing poles that go in behind a beast. You often get it half way in and if the beast moves back 30cm the pole becomes a missile flying back a metre into your delicate parts.

 

Fence post put in behind last beast. 

• Make sure the backing pole is the right length.
• Always wear safety boots or gumboots with steel toe caps.
• Use the animal’s “point of balance” to move stock.
  
• Don’t “eyeball” stock if you want them to move towards you. Turn your back and walk backwards (carefully) past their point of balance.
  

Getting advice
There are specialists who will design stock yards of all sizes and can arrange for them to be built. It’s a very good idea to go and see stockyards on other farms when they are being used, and after the newness has worn off them. Farmers are great, they’ll tell you everything that’s good about their yards and everything that needs improving – at no charge.

Stand-off pads and feed pads.

• The concern here is that the cow often finds it difficult to find a suitable area to lie down.
• Cows need rest and prefer to lie down between 8 and 12 hours each day.
• They can tolerate a minimum of 4 hours/day for 4 continuous days before they start to suffer distress – seen by hanging of their heads.
• When let out to graze after confinement, cows will rest in preference to grazing.
• Cows are reluctant to lie down on wet and/or slippery surfaces or in deep mud or slurry.
• They prefer soft surfaces to lie on such as sand or bark and should only be held on hard surfaces (e.g. concrete) for periods of 4 days maximum or they will suffer lameness and stress.
• For cows to lie down on stand-off areas they should have a minimum of 3.5m²/cow for short periods (12 hours/day for up to 2 days) and 5m²/cow for 3 continuous days or longer.
• On a feed pad not all cows will want to lie down at the same time as some will be feeding, so areas per cow can be modified based on their behaviour.
  

Disclaimer This material is provided in good faith for information purposes only, and the author does not accept any liability to any person for actions taken as a result of the information or advice (or the use of such information or advice) provided in these pages.