The Dolans of Tyneside - an Irish-Northumbrian Diaspora

Photo: Clara Vale School c1900, where a generation of Dolans were educated. Image is courtesy of iSee Gateshead collection who own copyright.

When Clara Vale colliery on Tyneside opened in the late 1880s, the news spread to Cumberland that there was guaranteed work with good wages, and new modern houses for those willing to go down into the rich seams of black gold, and bring it up for the rapidly expanding heavy industry on Tyneside. It was a case of "the woorks dorty but the muney's clean".

From the pit owners' point of view, there would not have been enough local "Geordie" labour, so they would have welcomed "the Irish" who turned up for work. It would be interesting to know how the Geordies welcomed the Micks!

Many Irish folk left their homeland for Cumberland looking for work on farms where they married local lasses and started large Catholic families. But the lure of big money in the coalmines saw them moving west to Clara Vale on the river Tyne, which was just inside the county Durham border.

The Dolans were one of these families, and this knol, which has evolved over the last 40 years, is their story as they spread to Canada, Australia and New Zealand over the next 3 generations. Three of the same generation of descendants are pictured in the photo below - meeting recently in furthest flung New Zealand.

Second cousins Pat Richardson (Canadian branch), Clive Dalton (UK branch) and Martha Tebbs (nee Graham of the NZ branch) all great grand children of John Dolan and Martha Feron

Animal behaviour and welfare: General

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE BASICS: PART 1

Definitions: Concerns: Issues
By Clive Dalton

What is animal behaviour?

• Everybody is interested in animal behaviour is because of TV wildlife films.
  
• Animal behaviour studies what animals do, but also the how, why, where and when they do it.
  
• The "why" is probably the most important question as this is the information you need to solve problems. The fancy name for animal behaviour is animal ethology.
• Animal behaviour is very much bound up with "animal welfare" and we study behaviour problems to improve welfare.
  
• The behaviour of animals in practice is seen by humans as either:
• Appropriate or inappropriate
• Acceptable or unacceptable
• Normal or abnormal
  

But this depends on the circumstances so always look at the context - the big picture.

Why is animal behaviour important?

• Every animal production problem has a very large animal behaviour component, and behaviour problems have a large impact on animal production and hence profit.
  
• Animal behaviour has big implications for our export trading and animal welfare issues can be used as indirect tariffs against New Zealand.
  
• And always be aware of the effect humans and their behaviour has on animal behaviour and vice versa.

What is animal welfare?
Animal welfare is concerned with suffering and satisfaction during the animal's life. There are three reasons for concern about animal welfare:

• Respect for animals and sense of fair play.
• Poor welfare leading to poor product quality.
• Risk to markets where poor products leave a poor product image.
  

The four "I‘s" of animal suffering
There are four situations where humans are directly responsible for animal suffering -called the four "Is":

• Ignorance - not knowing what to do or claiming this in defence.
• Inexperience - knowing what to do, but not knowing how to do it.
• Incompetence - inability to do it.
• Inconsideration - not caring.
  

(From Gregory, N (1988). Animal Welfare and Meat Science, CAB 1998).

Who is concerned with animal behaviour and welfare?
This is an important question, as most people would reply to it by suggesting only farmers and veterinarians who make their livings from farm livestock are concerned.

But there are many more as shown in the list below - which is open for your further additions:
Veterinarians - they make their living from animals and their ethical code is to care for them under the law.

• Farmers - they make their living from them too, again under the law.
• Scientists - the study of ethology for academic and practical reasons.
• RSPCA - Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
• Government ministries - Agriculture, Environment and Forestry.
• ACVM - Agricultural Compounds & Veterinary Medicines Board.
• ILHP - International League for the Horse Protection.
• SAFE - Save Animals from Exploitation.
• ALF - Animal Liberation Front.
• Environmental Risk Management Agencies.
• DOC - Departments of Conservation.
• WSPA -World Society for Protection of Animals.
• Cat Protection League.
• Humane Society.
• PETA - People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.
• The Cow Protection League.
• Greenpeace.
• Politicians - responding to constituents and developing and modifying the law.
• District and Regional Councils - mainly pest control.
• Antivivisectionists.
• Vegetarians and Vegans.
• Various religions.
• The general public - "Society"!
• The media - animal stories make good copy.
• THE ANIMAL itself! Note that it's usually the last to be remembered and needs to be the first entry on the list.
  

What issues concern the public or society in New Zealand?

• The "public" or "society" are very difficult describe, especially to farmers who get annoyed about too much interference in their business.
  
• But vague or not, the public and society have enormous power through their organisations and by simply refusing to buy animal products.

NZ Issues
The issues of concern vary depending a lot on what has just been aired in the media. Here are some that occur regularly:

• Direct cruelty and any flouting the law.
• Intensive or factory farming - especially of pigs, battery hens and broiler chickens.
• Extensive farming issues where lambs die in late snow storms.
• Hormones, growth stimulants and antibiotics fed to animals.
• Transport of animals, especially live exports of sheep.
• Rodeo and circus animals used in entertainment.
• Slaughter of livestock.
• Zoos
• Animals used in research and teaching.
  

What issues concern the public?

• It's interesting and important to be aware of these as UK is a major market for our animal products and any rules they set for themselves can easily be made mandatory for countries exporting to them.
  
• These issues inevitably play a major role in setting the standards of farm animal welfare:
• Declining profitability of livestock farming.
• EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform and world Free Trade agreements. Increasing bureaucracy in all countries.
• The power of retailers - e.g. large supermarket chains squeezing prices paid to farmers.
• Backyard farmers threatening good husbandry standards.
• Commodity versus niche producers.
• An ageing agricultural workforce and young people not going into farming.
• Growth of meat production in developing countries (with doubtful welfare standards) that could be imported into developed markets with high standards.
• The OIE (colloquially known as the World Organisation for Animal Health has become the de facto international reference organisation for animal protection and is developing a global framework of guidelines for animal welfare.
  
• The EU is currently pressing for animal welfare issues to be discussed in the current discussions in the WTO negotiations.

Topical issues include:

• Proposals for EU directives on broilers and laying hens.
• OIE guidelines for animal welfare.
• Council of Europe decree that farm animals are sentient beings.
• New animal welfare bills for Scotland, England and Wales.
• EU Action plan on animal welfare.
  

Current public interest issues
The public's interest in animal welfare issues has increased in recent years and shows no signs of abating.
Current drivers of this interest include:

• Active lobby groups on different issues.
• Increasing levels of disposable income in UK society.
• Growing awareness of animal welfare issues among some consumers.
• Remoteness of consumers from farming and food production.
• A perceived lack of public confidence in science.
• Interest among consumers (and producers) of getting welfare information on food labels.
  

What European consumers believe and want (2007)

• 67% believe the level of welfare protection of farm animals is poor or very poor.
• 78% believe more needs to be done to improve welfare.
• Chickens, laying hens, turkeys and pigs have the most public welfare concerns.
• 76% believe that food retailers don't provide enough information on welfare standards from which the products were sourced.
• 85% would like products to have better labels to denote the animal welfare conditions.
• 93% believed that imported foods should be produced under welfare conditions at least as high as in UK. (Big implications from NZ).
• 76% believed that better knowledge of farming practices could influence food purchasing decisions.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: General

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE: PART 2

The 3 Rs; The 5 Freedoms: Law: Normal behaviour: Animal rights: Stress & distress
By Dr Clive Dalton

The three R's

• The history of animals used in research and teaching is littered with horror stories and images from the past, and this has led to a drive to reduce animal use - by what is called the three R‘s.
  
• They are Replacement, Reduction and Refinement. Research is now charged with a range of things to meet these three R‘s- for example:
• Using demonstrations instead of hands-on work with animals.
• Using models instead of real animal tissues.
• Using computer simulation.
• Using tissue culture.
• Using closed circuit television to show a procedure to more students.
  

The Animal Welfare Act 1999

• The updating of the Animal Welfare Act in 1999 gave a wider definition of "the animal" which now covers all vertebrates i.e. fish and the invertebrate crayfish.
  
• There was a big change in emphasis from "prosecution" to "education" and the word "cruelty" was removed and "distress' given emphasis.
• Codes of Recommendation and Minimum Standards" were produced to give the details relevant for each species of animal (e.g. cattle, sheep, bobby calves) and for painful manipulations (e.g. removing antler velvet from stags).
• A key factor in the Act was the emphasis given to the "five freedoms" which are now recognised internationally as the foundation of all animal welfare thinking. And the other big emphasis was to base the animal's needs on what was "good practice and scientific knowledge".
• Professor Brambell in UK in 1967 developed the five freedoms and you'll find them written in various orders in different publications. The order below is written to make them easier to remember by learning the code letters.
  

The five freedoms:

• 1. Freedom from hunger and thirst (HT)
• 2. Freedom from discomfort (D)
• 3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease (PID)
• 4. Freedom from fear and distress (FD)
• 5. Freedom to express "normal" behaviour (NB)
  

What is "normal" behaviour?

• This can be a very contentious issue and it's often easier to define what "abnormal" behaviour is. There's room for a lot of personal opinion both informed and not informed, and a great deal of anthropomorphism (see later).
  
• But there is no doubt that normal behaviour has got to be the baseline for decision making.
  

General needs for normal behaviour:

• Social contact
• Food and water
• Warmth
• Ventilation
• Space
• Opportunities to play
• Opportunity for courtship and mating
  

Speciesism

• This is a term coined by UK Animal Rights campaigner Richard Ryder and is a concept developed by Professor Peter Singer from Monash University in Victoria in his book "Animal Liberation".
• It is defined as "A prejudice or attitude of bias toward the interests of members of one's own species and against those members of other species". In practice it means you have to treat all animals using the same standards.
  
• The best example are animals classed as "vermin" as they must be given the same humane treatment (e.g. when exterminating them) as farm animals and pets.

Genetics and Environment - nature versus nurture

• When investigating an animal behaviour problem, you will regularly be faced with the question - is the problem caused by the animal's genetic makeup, the environment in which it was reared and managed, or a bit of both? Usually it's the latter - a bit of both.
  
• We know the effect of the environment (e.g. early socialisation, feeding etc) is massive on the final outcome, but recent work from twin studied shows just how strong genetics are.
  
• A good example is dog breeds selected for aggression - but are very friendly to their owners who swear they would never attack anyone! Their killer genes come out when their owners are not present and these dogs think that they or their territory are being threatened.
• Professor Gluckman in Auckland is leading a team studying EPIGENETICS where they have found that the many genes controlling a trait in humans like early growth and development, do not so much as determine what is expressed, as allow for a range of possibilities determined by the environment experienced.
  
• Because the environment is always changing, the hallmark of biological systems is their ability to cope with these changes.
• They do this by switches which can turn the genes finally expressed either ON or OFF depending on environmental factors with most influence during embryonic, foetal and early infant life by environmental factors such as maternal health, nutrition and stress. Epigenetics is studying how these switches work.
  

Anthropomorphism

• This is where you use human emotions and feelings to describe the behaviour of animals. Is it not a good thing if it ends up providing animals with what you think they would like if you were in their place?
  
• But it can be dangerous from a professional viewpoint and there is the risk of coming to a wrong conclusion over issues when being anthropomorphic and forgetting that animals are animals.
  
• Problems experienced by dog owners who forget that their dogs are dogs are a prime example. Both they and their dogs are confused!

Animals Rights - Do animals have rights?

• This is a common and valid quesiton.
  
• The moral position argues that animals have certain rights the same way humans have rights, and these must not be broken. The end result of this is that animals should never be exploited for human gain.
• Another view is that animals cannot claim the same rights as humans, but they have the right to be treated well by those who tend them. In practical terms they have the right to the Five Freedoms. You can see the dangers of getting anthropomorphic over this question.

Do animals have souls?

• You may also have to face the question.
  
• Your response will depend greatly on your religious views or lack of them.
  
• If you believe animals do have souls, you could then argue that they do have rights similar to humans.
  
• The great apes for example have recently experienced an enormous improved change in human attitudes to their rights, with DNA studies confirming their similarity to humans.
• So if they are that near to humans, do they have souls too?
• The animal cremation services get a lot of business from people who believe their pets have souls and deserves the same dignity that humans have a right to.
  

Stress and distress

• Some "stress" is valuable for good performance and survival, but too much turns into "distress" which has a bad effect on the animal.
  
• Behaviourists don't like the word stress and prefer distress. This is probably a bit academic but it's due to concern over definitions.
  
• From a practical point of view what stress does is to increase the "arousal" of the animal. Again some stress is good (e.g. to move stock) and some is bad (e.g. when they panic and bolt).

Arousal - things that increase it

• Isolation from mates or members of same species.
• Separation from owner.
• Decrease personal space.
• Lack of food and water.
• No shade or shelter.
• Novelty - something strange in the environment.
• Threats - something seen as a threat (eg human and animal).
• Aversive things - eg electric shocks.
• Noise - high pitched.
• High light intensity - especially poultry.
• Increased cold - especially pigs.
  

Arousal - things that decrease it?

• Provide company.
• Increase personal space.
• Provide plenty of food and water.
• A warm well-ventilated environment.
• Provide shade and shelter.
• Low frequently sound.
• Talk to the animals - in low tones.
• Low light levels.
• Change colour of light.
• Remove aversions and perceived threats.
  

Signs of fear in animals

• Vigorous tail flicking
  
• Spasmodic body shivering
• Head shaking
• Eyelid flickering
• Salivating
• Head retraction
• Diarrhoea/urinating
  
• Eye closure
• Nostril flaring
  
• White's of eyes showing
  

Cost of excess arousal - stress
This is what can result from unduly stressing animals:

• Poor stock performance.
• Increased ACC levies.
• Greater disease incidence.
• Deaths and family trauma.
• Accidents to staff - major and minor.
• Damage to property.
• Staff time off work and cost of replacement.
• Risk of fines from OSH
  

Social organisation in animals
Understanding the social behavior of animals is vital in problem solving. Here are some general principles - too often taken for granted:

• Animals are social creatures - they enjoy and may crave for the company of their own kind.
• Group living has big advantages for the animal:
• It allows protection against predators - allows group defence
• Provides cooperation in food gathering.
• Mates are easier to find.
• Allows synchrony of mating, birth and rearing of offspring.
• Solitary living has advantages when food is very scarce.
• Animals have rules - they help survival and peace in the group.
• Humans need to remember this! They cause the problem by confusing the rules.
• Animals need space - their own private space.
• They need mental stimulation - and the group provides this.
• They like predictability - but sometimes they thrive on unpredictability (eg the chance of a fight for the top position).
• At certain times of the year males are solitary.
• When males are reared or farmed in groups they can be homosexual and may need to learn to live and mate with females.

Hierarchies

• Animals organise their social behaviour into hierarchies.
• We talk about the "peck order" in birds, the "bunt order" in cattle, because this is the way they sort themselves out.
• These hierarchies can be stable or they can be fluid - depending on a whole lot of things:
• Food supply - if plenty of food, there's no need to fight.
• Size - a good big 'un will always beat a good little 'un.
• Sexual prowess - testosterone is a guaranteed winner.
• Cunning - the young males who fools the old male.
• Ego - my harem's bigger than yours.
• Top of the hierarchy is an alpha male who at least thinks he's the boss.
• In many cases an alpha female below him is the real boss - but she lets him act as if he was the leader.
• The alpha female has enormous power (especially over the young males) and will fight hard to keep her status.
• It's in the interest of the alpha male to make sure she keeps her job, so he will keep his too.
• His worry is when she takes a dislike to him and sees a better prospect.
• There is a constant state of young males looking for the inside chance to be alpha male.
• Fights that cause injury or death are against the survival of the group and are generally avoided. But when the issue is really important with genetic and survival implications - fights to the death if necessary will take place.
  

Are animals intelligent?

• This is another question behaviourists dislike as answering it risks anthropomorphism. "Can animals learn" is a lot safer question and the answer is clearly YES. So this leads on to the question of "does an ability to learn prove intelligence"?
• Animals certainly remember and we get into a lot of trouble by forgetting this fact. They remember their first experience very well so it's a good idea to ensure this is not a big negative one.
  
• Remembering is a survival trait for example where animals eat poison once and remember being ill. They are never keen to repeat the event and become "bait shy".
• Professor Brambell argued that "play" is a good guide to the general intelligence level of a species.
  

Can animals think?

• Animals cannot think in abstract terms - they cannot ponder the past or make plans for the future.
  
• If you see them appearing to think, it's more likely to be an "innate" behaviour than the result of logical decision-making. Animals have no notion or morality or right or wrong.
  
• They cannot understand the notion of a "rule". They can be taught rules by the techniques below.

Animal behaviour and welfare: General

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE: PART 3

Learning: Teaching: Pain & suffering: Problem analysis: Human-animal relations

By Dr Clive Dalton

Learning and teaching
There's plenty of evidence that animals can learn from simple to complex routines and it's clearly easier for them to learn things related to the innate behaviour of their species.

When we want to teach animals routines or change their behaviour, then a number of standard methods can be used:

• Classical conditioning by repeat presentation of a "conditioned stimulus" with an "unconditioned stimulus".
• Operant or instrumental conditioning by offering constant reinforcing stimuli with a reward.
  
• Habituation by learning not to respond to repeated stimuli. There is lack of reinforcement following the response, e.g. so the animal will eventually ignore the stimulus.
• Latent learning by using curiosity and exploration. It's learning without a clear reward. The learned behaviour is not expressed but lies latent.
• Insight learning by the animal seeing a solution immediately. For example the chimp that got the bananas by using a short stick to reach long stick to reach the banana.
• Imprinting. The classical work here is Lorenz and his geese. Birds follow the first thing they see after hatching and it was Lorenz on whom they were imprinted for the rest of their lives
  

More comment - Classical Conditioning (CC)
This is one of the main ways we teach animals, and it's the basis of a lot of animal retraining or correction. It was made famous by Pavlov and his dog experiments. Here is what he did:

• Dogs salivate when they see food and it's an easy visual response which is an innate behaviour of dogs.
• Pavlov rang a bell when the dog was fed.
• Eventually the dog would salivate for the bell anticipating the arrival of food.
• When not fed, the dog eventually stopped salivating for the bell.
• This is called "extinction" of a learned response.
• Fed again with the bell and the stimulus was reversed back to the food.
  

• A period of "association" is built between the two stimuli (old and new) for long enough so the new one becomes learned and appears to be instinctive.
• Before the animal shows an extinction behaviour, it may increase it's response to test if it will be rewarded before giving up. This is called an "extinction burst" and can be serious, e.g. cat pushing ornaments off to get attention.
• Many classical conditioning responses are complex and hence difficult to solve. This is where there is more than one stimulus involved - some of which you may not be aware of.
• In academic terms CC uses the relationship between a "response" and a "conditioned stimulus" (CS).
• The response works because it is caused by an "unconditioned stimulus" (UCS) - such as something that is innate.
• You then use the CS to trigger the UCS.
• A very important point is that you do NOT use "rewards" given by the handler to get a response.
  

More comment - Operant Conditioning (OC)

• This was made famous by a researcher called Skinner who used the "Skinner box" where rats were trained by a mild electric shock. When they failed to respond they got a shock and when successful they got a feed.
  
• Electric shocks were not essential which he demonstrated in other experiments with pigeons. When faced with two choices they got grain for a positive response and no grain for a negative one.
• Many other experiments have been carried out with poultry to select different kinds of cage environments and with large farm animals where they have been trained to press nose pads to make choices between feeds.
• Note that Operant Conditioning works using rewards. These can range from food, fussing, patting, play, voice tone, access to favourite areas, being allowed to explore or mix with mates, and many more.
• Rewards must be given at the same time as the response to be learned or within seconds afterwards. Similarly reprimands must be instant, and preferably not associated by the animal to the owner.
• Only when the response is well learned can the frequency of rewards be gradually reduced. You need to keep an occasional reward going to maintain anticipation and interest.
• A good example of this is the use of a "clicker" for training animals. The animal is trained with food rewards along with a click, and then the click on it's own will get the response. The association between food and click can be reinforced at required intervals if the response drops off. Clicker training is used for dogs and horses.
  

Pain and suffering

• This is a very important area of animal behaviour and welfare and has huge legal implications when prosecutions have to be made under the law. For further information see the MAF Code of Welfare No. 17. Care and use of animals for scientific purposes - p. 38.
  

Fears and phobias

Some fears are essential for survival but when extreme become phobias. When threatened mammals have four major defence responses:

• Flight - withdraw from the threat.
• Immobility - crouch and lies still to avoid detection.
• Deflection/appeasement - actively submit to the attacker.
• Fight - defensive aggression to attacker Some phobias seem to be partly caused by innate sensitivity e.g. animals with snakes. But many phobias contain a learned component. It can be a "conditioned reaction" to a fearful experience.
• Phobias cannot be cured by repeated exposure to the full stimulus. They can however be "unlearned" by "systematic desensitisation using very mild exposures to the cause so as not to create anxiety. This is gradually increased until the full stimulus can be accepted.

Growth and Development

• Growth, development and age have an important effect on animal behaviour and welfare so it's important to realise how animals grow.
  
• Growth takes the form of an S-shaped curve starting at conception, moving slowly to birth and then rapidly up through puberty to slow down at maturity.
• After conception the brain and central nervous system (CNS) have first call on nutrients provided by the mother. In the last weeks of pregnancy the foetus increases in weight.
• From birth through puberty to maturity tissues grow in order of bone, muscle then finally fat. But this can vary with feed supply as fat can be laid down in young animals if fed on a very high plane of nutrition. During this growth body proportions change.
  

Birth
This is a critical phase and can be traumatic for both dam and offspring.

Dam problems

• Paralysis
• Retained foetal membranes (RFM)
• Delayed return to normal breeding - anoestrus
• Bonding
• Uterine infections
• Teat and udder problems
  

Offspring problems:

• Hypothermia (37C drop to zero)
• Exposure/Starvation
• Dystocia
• Teat seeking problems
• Bonding
• Mismothering and neglect
  

Puberty

• This is the age of sexual maturity and when sexual behaviour starts.
  
• The animal has innate mating instincts but it still has to learn and practice to be effective.
• Puberty is dictated more by live weight than age.
• Genetics are involved as animals have been selected by farmers for early or late sexual maturity.
• Territorial issues start to be seen.
• Hierarchy issues start to apply.
  

Maturity

• Here animals reach mature weight expressing their genetic potential.
• If of large size and weight, this may pose mating problems.
• There are many diseases of old age:
• Arthritis
• Cancer
• Kidney failure
• Feet
• Teeth
• Obesity
• Failing sight
• Low appetite
• Low libido and mating problems
• There are people problems, e.g. aging pets, death and dignified disposal.
• There are marketing issues, e.g. deciding on slaughter weights to fit market needs.

Analysing a behaviour problem

• When faced with an animal behaviour "problem", there are many aspects to be examined before a conclusion can be drawn and a solution formulated. Here are some things that must be done first:
• Interview the person who has the "animal problem" and take detailed notes. Listen to what they see as the problem. List what they have tried, how they did it and what happened.
• Was the problem obvious?
• Did it appear to be simple or complex? Observe the situation in detail with an open mind.
  
• Make detailed record or what the animal does and what happens in the environment. This is called an "ethogram".
• Form a hypothesis - what you think is the problem, and then try to test this to confirm that your conclusions were correct.

Check list
The human (companion animal owner)

• What basic knowledge do they have about the animal?
• What is their age and how active are they?
• Their sex?
• Marital status – its stability and length of relationship?
• The people in the client's hierarchy?
• Has this changed recently?
• Who in the household has most interaction with the animal?
• Is this the truth – e.g. Is someone else quietly feeding it?
• Children - the number, their ages and sex?
• How do these kids get on with each other? Is there an aggressive hierarchy among the kids?
• House - the size and the area the animal may be allowed in and who sets these rules?
• Garden - the size and how important it is to the owner, and any restrictions for the animal?
• The general "lifestyle" of the family and the part the animal plays in this?
  

The human (farm animal owner)

• Who is “the farmer”?
• Who says they are the farmer but who is making the decisions?
• Their sex? e.g. Is it Mum or Dad, or the sons/daughters who are in control of stock management?
• What is the general attitude to animals on the farm?
• What is the state of the property e.g. general tidiness?
• What is the current feed status and are there any feed reserves?
• Are there plans for an emergency e.g. Floods or snow storms?
• What is the economic status of the business?
• What’s the owner’s attitude to “regulations and authorities”?
• What’s their attitude to their veterinarian?
• How stressed does the owner(s) appear?
• How well cared for are the family pets?
  

The animal

• What species - keeping in mind species-specific behaviour and innate ability.
• Breed - its importance in size, tractability and living space needed.
• Age - young an active or geriatric and sedentary.
• Sex- entire or desexed and at what age was it done?
• Hierarchy - where does the animal appear to fit in the family, flock or herd?
• Diet- what is the diet or feed supply and have there been changes?
• Are there sources of feed for emergencies?
• Exercise - how much exercise is allowed?
• Territory- what is the size of the "home range"?
• What information do you need to collect to solve the problem? (An ethogram)
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Cats Part 1

CAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Domestication: Social structure: Territory

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• Ancestors of domestic cats started to live alongside humans as early as 130,000 years ago attracted by vermin and discarded food scraps.
  
• Then when man changed from hunter-gatherer to village resident, the cat became domesticated. DNA evidence now shows cats can be traced to the Eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf (the Fertile Crescent) to five female ancestors. These “founding felines” came from a wild cat Felis libyca, still found in remote deserts of the Middle East.
• There are records of domesticated cats in ancient Egypt about 3500 years ago, where the cat was hunted for food and skins, and then encouraged to enter the human family for these reasons.
• It fitted easily into the human family hierarchy.
• It then developed religious significance in human society.
• Cats are very reward-seeking which always appealed to humans as well as their aloofness.
  
• Pest control was also a major reason for man keeping cats.
  

Modern cats

• There's a vast range of breeds, and there are breeders increasing new genetic types all the time as there is big money in being the exclusive owner of a new type of cat.
• We refer to "domesticated cats" or those that live in close association with man.
• Then there are "farm cats" that are domesticated but not keen on close human contact.
• "Feral cats" are those that have escaped from domestication and are fearful of human contact.
  

Social structure

• Cats are "reward-seeking" animals and this helps in developing a social hierarchy.
• Cats generally have a loose hierarchy - not as structured as dogs.
• They time share areas in their territory.
• Generally entire males are most dominant, followed by entire females, then spayed females and neutered males.
• Most wild cats live solitary lives, but they can also live happily as part of a group.
• Most domestic cats do the same but they have bonded owners to live with.
• The "mother-kitten" relationship is the basis of group development. The female kittens stay on with mum while the males leave to set up territories and go solitary.
• Some males are happy to stay in a single family group or they may move between groups.
• A social group of females allows for synchrony of oestrus and mutual care including cross suckling of kittens.
• Social structure becomes more defined and competitive when food is scarce, or where there is a limited amount of shelter.
• Remember there is a lot of individual variation between cats due to genetics and early environment.
  

Cats and territory

• Cats are territorial predators, which has important implications for modern humans.
• They have a home range that they routinely check out daily to hunt and explore.
  
• Home ranges of cats can overlap resulting in conflict and savage fights.
• Tom cats have large territories that can cover around 1 km in all directions for their den (home). But this depends on other Toms in the area and where there are few, a Tom may extend his territory to much greater size.
• Male cats know when they are not welcome in a strange area - note their stealth when they visit your property during a mating season.
• In their home range they have all they need - food source, shelter, social contact, urination and defaecation areas.
• They scent mark their range by clawing objects and spray urinating, and will protect it against intruders.
• Once established - this marking routine may provide an expression of security (marking in the house).
• Spraying. Urine contains glandular secretions so spraying is like leaving their CV around. It denoted gender, age, hormonal state and general health.
• Middening. Cats normally bury their faeces but they sometimes deliberately leave them on the surface to add scent to their territory, especially if they sense a challenge.
• Clawing. This is used as a visual sign but also leaves odours from the glands from the pedal (foot) glands.
• Nose rubbing. Cats rub their cheeks on twigs (and their owners) to leave odours from their cheek glands.
• Hunting the territory occurs mainly at dawn and dusk - they tend to be active only in short bursts. Cats are incapable of sustained effort.
• Cats are excellent climbers, and can handle falling in emergencies. They can swim when forced to, but it's not a preferred mode of transport.
• Territory becomes a problem in cages but cats can survive together, even including Toms. But it needs skilled observation.
  
• They can act in an "indifferent" mode to each other, as long as they have enough personal space above ground. The floor is used on a time-share basis.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Cats Part 2

CAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 2

Cat’s senses: Communication: Social behaviour

By Dr Clive Dalton











Vision

• Kittens are born nearly blind and their eyes open at 7-10 days old (range from 2-16 days).
• So touch and physical contact are very important to cats. This has big implications for humans and is widely exploited to the benefit of both cat and owner.
• Cats can see colour but with limited perception. They have better colour vision than dogs.
• Cats are creatures of the night and see well in poor light due to the structure of the eye. They can dilate their large pupils.
• Each eye has 150-205 degrees peripheral vision, with 90-130 degrees overlap for binocular vision. So they have a total visual field of 250-280 degrees.
  
• Cats cannot focus closer than 75mm - but at that close distance when hunting they use other senses. Their best vision is around 2-6m
  

Hearing

• Kittens are born with poor hearing and start to become normal by 3 weeks.
• Cat hears sounds up to 50-85kHz - human upper limit is 18-20 kHz. So they hear about four times better than humans and in the ultrasonic range that we cannot hear.
• Cats can also hear higher sounds than dogs.
• Their hearing range is very wide - over 10.5 octaves.
• Cats have mobile ears allowing rapid response to locate the source of the sound.
• They can interpret different wave patterns hitting each ear.
• The ear structure is a important in aiding balance when falling
  

Smell

• Cats have a very well developed olfactory system - 1000 times better than humans.
• Smell is very important in communication.
• Cats recognise the general smell of their home environment and are sensitive to any small changes.
  
• It's important to get the cat used to anything new in the environment as soon as possible - e.g. a new cat or baby.
• Cats have a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) on the hard palate which they can use to sense chemicals in aromas. They then show a Flehmen response, baring their teeth and giving a quiet hissing sound - called the "gape response" like the Flehmen in large animals. You see it when they sniff catnip.
• Smell governs what a cat will eat so they should avoid blocked noses.
• A cat's sense of smell is much more developed than in humans.
  
• They can detect small changes in food and you see this if you change a brand of cat meat. They will almost starve before they'll eat the new brand.
• Newborn kittens have an acute sense of smell to help them locate teats
  

Taste

• Cats show little response to sweet things but can detect salt, sour and bitter.
• They are very sensitive to the taste of water which explain their bizarre behaviour of sometimes drinking from muddy pools and fish tanks.
• Taste is less important than smell - smell is everything to a cat.
• Cats don't taste when hunting prey, only when sink their teeth in after capture.
  

Touch (Kinaesthetics)

• The cat's whole body is very sensitive to touch.
• The long outer guard hairs of the coat are especially sensitive.
• Hair movement provides information for the cat in its environment, e.g. wind direction to approach prey.
• Receptors also are concentrated in the feet pads.
• Cats are not very sensitive to heat - can stand up to 52C, e.g. lying beside fire.
• They can detect changes of 0.5°C via their noses which they use in hunting.
• Cats have very mobile whiskers used for sensing. Whiskers are forward when walking or hunting and back when greeting or sniffing.
  

Memory and learning

• Cats can show some ability to reason and work things out - but it is limited, so make sure you have not been anthropomorphic in drawing conclusions.
• The can understand cause and effect - if the interval between each is short.
• The have a fair degree of memory retention if reinforced by repeated attempts.
• Examples are cats that learn to jump up and turn door knobs or work cat doors.
• Cats can learn from copying other cats. Kittens learn a wide range of behaviours from their mother, or mothers reinforce inherent behaviours.
• More people are now training cats to do tricks, apart from the basic needs of house training, and stopping them scratching furniture.
  

Communication - sound

• Cats being very social animals have a well developed communication skills.
• They have learned to vocalise a special range of sounds for humans - cats don't mew to other cats.
• Sixteen different sounds have been recognised that are audible to humans. There are also many which are not audible to us.

Pure calls

• Murmur
• Growl
• Squeak
• Hiss
• Spit
• Teeth chatter
• 
  

Complex calls

• Mew
• Moan
• Meow
  

• There is also a wide range of tones and meanings - most common are growl/hiss/yowl.
• Purring is most commonly known to humans as the sign of a happy cat and is a very typical greeting call. It was a long time before researchers found how the cat did it.
• It's caused by rapid contraction of muscles in the larynx when the cat is contented or happy. A cat can sometimes purr when stressed. Purring is used when a mother nurses kittens as a contentment reassuring sound.
• The meow has a wide range of tones and it's often easy for owners to interpret some of these sounds.
• Oestrus howling has an important courting function, not appreciated by humans or their neighbours during the night!
  

Communication - body language
Cats use a large amount of non-verbal communication such as:

• Body postures
• Facial expressions
• Eyes, ears, mouth, tail and coat.
• They have developed a range of body signals for humans and other cats.
• "Friendly and relaxed" - the tail is held out behind or erect and curled slightly forward. The cat will rub itself against things and rub its muzzle on you to transfer scent.
• "Passive" - it sits crouched, tail and head down and avoids direct gaze.
• "In conflict" - the entire tail twitches or just the end. It is done in association with other signs.
• "Offensive threat" - the cat gives you a direct stare and its body is poised for attack. The cat approaches an enemy with sideways motion and prancing steps. This makes the cat look bigger to the enemy.
• "Defensive threat" - the back is arched, body fur fluffed up and tail up straight. The chin is drawn in to protect the throat. One paw is raised ready to lash out.
• With the eyes, narrow eyes show friendship with the stare being a definite threat.
  
• When the cat turns away from you it can be a sign of disdain or that the relationship in from the cat's viewpoint is OK. If a cat jumps up on you this is also a sign that the cat does not see you as a threat.
  

Communication - pheromones

• These are very important in cat communication.
• They are spread around in urine marks, faeces, scratch marks from feet and cheek glands.
• They make these marks where they are easy for other cats to find.
• The higher they scratch the more powerful impression they leave.
  

Balance and activity

• In the first couple of weeks after birth kittens crawl with sideways movements of the head like pups seeking warmth and teats.
• It is 7 weeks before they can thermoregulate (control their heat) themselves as they need Mum's heat up to then.
• By week 2 they can raise their front end.
• By day 17 they can stand and do an awkward walk.
• By 6 weeks they can right themselves if they fall over.
• Cats show this amazing "righting reflex" when falling as they land on their feet. This is a function of the inner ear, a large cerebellum and the spinal cord.
• Kittens are notoriously active and need to be encouraged to play in their socialisation and development.
• Mature cats reduce activity and spend more than 65% sleeping.
  
• Tom cats during the mating season are very active traveling long distances checking out their territory.
  

Play

• Play is an essential part of normal behaviour in the cat.
• It starts early as soon as kittens are mobile when they spend long periods interacting.
• Play teaches the kitten all the movements needed to survive and reproduce as an adult.
• Kittens reared in a litter are usually better-adjusted adults than single-reared kittens who only have their parents to play with.
• As an individual in a litter, there's a much great chance to learn to prepare and defend yourself against surprise attack, than as a singleton.
• A wide range of play moves have been identified:
• Scoop, Toss, Grasp,Poke-Bat, Bite-Mouth, Belly up, Stand up, Vertical stand, Pounce, Chase, Side step, Horizontal leap, Face off
  

Grooming

• This is a big feature of cats and occupies 30-50% of a cat's waking time.
• It also creates problems - fur ball.

Purpose of grooming:

• Maintains health of the skin and coat.
• Cools the body by evaporation of saliva.
• Controls parasites.
• "Displacement grooming" is a response to conflict, environmental stress or frustration. It's thought to be a response to reduce anxiety.
• "Mutual grooming" is used for social interaction and to show a relaxed state with other cats. Developed from maternal grooming.
• "Over grooming" - a problem sometimes started by itchy skin. It can develop into a serious obsession where cats become "closet lickers" and are hard to catch at it and stop.
  

Socialisation

• Kittens must be socialised early at between 2-6 weeks. This is a much shorter time span than in dogs.
• If they can be handled before their eyes are open, that's all the better.
• If kittens are not socialised before weaning (6weeks) then you'll have problems and it will take time to tame them.
• Kitten Kindy. This is a new approach by veterinarians to teach people how to socialise their kittens.
• At 2-9 weeks provide human contact and handling.
• As often as possible before 12 weeks handle kittens and routinely restrain them.
• 7-12 weeks - provide social play.
• After 14 weeks teach them fearful play, and learn to play fight.
• Be careful with this "play fight" activity as it can teach them to be over aggressive.
• Check the "Scruff test" where you hold the kitten by the scruff of its neck. If they allow this and don't fight of struggle, then they are probably OK.
  

Nutrition and feeding

• Cats are mainly carnivores, but modern cat foods contain some cereals to provide carbohydrates.
• Cats eat both day and night whereas dogs only feed during the day.
• They are very fussy about what they eat due to their acute sense of smell, and once settled on a brand of cat food they often don't appreciate changes.
• In the wild they would probably eat every second day after a hunt.
• The principles of nutrition are simple - the cat's nutrient intake should meet its needs. So growing, pregnant and lactating cats will need a much higher plane of nutrition than the family cat that sleeps most of the time.
• Overfeeding leads to obesity and health problems.
• The modern domestic cat is regularly overfed. Owners who go out to work leave an ad lib feeder full of biscuits, or tinned meat in a dish far in excess of what the cat needs. Unless owners see feed left, they think the cat will be hungry and hence starve!
• Owners need to discuss feeding their cat with a veterinarian so that it receives a correctly balanced diet which meets its needs - not its wants.
  

Reproduction

• Cats are seasonal breeders and the start of oestrus is stimulated by increasing daylight. They need 12-14 hours of light to get going.
• So the breeding season gets into full swing in spring.
  
• Toms also are seasonally active but stud Toms will mate any time. Their maximum fertility is in spring.
• Puberty is around 9 months but some breeds will start at 4 months.
• Cats can be desexed at 6 months old.
• Non pregnant females cycle every18-24 days.
• Heat periods last 4 hours if mated and 5-10 days if not.
• Ovulation is induced by copulation and it happens 27 hours after copulation.
• If they don't conceive after mating they will often have a pseudo pregnancy and won't start cycling again for 36 days.
• Cats have litters usually averaging around 4-5 kittens.
• Kittens are born blind and with very poor hearing like pups.
• Eyes open around 2-3 weeks.
• The cat mating ritual is very defined with mock fighting, body contact, and rapid and repeated coitus. It's a very noisy affair that can go on all day.
  

Desexing (neutering)

• Castration of males and spaying females prevents reproduction and all the associated behaviours.
• Spraying and fighting may still continue, but this may be brought about by special environmental factors. It may be done away from home range.
• The timing of desexing is important - get it done early before 6 months?
• It is claimed that no other cat behaviours are affected.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Cats Part 3

CAT BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 3

Cat-human relationships: Behaviour problems

By Dr Clive Dalton


Cat-human bond

• Strength of the bond depends on good early socialisation of the cat by a human.
• This is then transferable to a new human with time.
• A cat may be more bonded to the home and its smells rather than the person - hence the problem of cats going back to an old home. The cat needs time to readjust to new environmental smells so keep it shut in for at least a week.
• Cats will go for walks with owners and hunt. This is easier in rural areas.
• Owners soon learn to interpret certain calls and cat seems to know this.
• It is said that there is a stronger interaction between female humans than males with a cat.
• It is also said that there is stronger interaction between a cat and an adult than with children.
• These interactions are probably just based on food and who in the family feeds the cat regularly.
  

Cat's interaction with humans

• Head butting
• Rubbing cheeks on person
• Kneading or paddling with feet and claws
• Purring
• Snuggling under armpit
• Enjoying their noses and eyes covered by your cupped hand
• If there are a number of cats in the house they need vertical space for a good human/cat relationship and will time-share these areas to avoid conflict..
  

Cat Behaviour "Problems"
Like dogs- cats don't have problems, as they are behaving like cats.

It's the humans who have problems because they forget the domestic contract and the five freedoms, and expect their cats to adapt to what they want. This may not be possible or will take some time to achieve.

1. Poor human-cat bond

• A strong bond is very important to both human and cat partners.
• The bond is formed by good early socialisation and needs constant reinforcing.
• Death, divorce and moving house are the three greatest bond breakers.
• Surveys show that 50% of humans suffer stress on moving and 50% of cats must do also.
• Most upset is resolved in 1-2 weeks but some lasts for 3-4 months.
• Many people have unrealistic expectations of their cat and they have probably have the wrong species as a pet.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Socialise all kittens before they are 2-6 weeks old.
• Keep reinforcing the bond by regular interaction with the cat.
• Rehome the cat with someone with skills to resocialise it, in a different environment.
  

2. Poor socialisation.

• "Nasty cats" (wild, unfriendly and unreliable) for whatever reason have probably not been properly socialised to humans.
• Always start here to work out a cat behaviour problem.
• What happens in the early weeks can have a lifelong effect.
• You can fix some problems later, but it will take you time and it will cost the client money.
• Some humans are better at taming wild cats than others showing a greater empathy and skill.

Possible cures/prevention

• Socialise all kittens before they are 2-6 weeks old.
• Keep reinforcing the bond by regular interaction with the cat.
• Rehome the cat with someone with skills to resocialise it, in a different environment.

3. Infanticide

• This is seen in lions when new males oust old ones and they kill all the cubs to bring females on heat quickly and remove all previous males' genetics at the same time.
• It is known to happen in domestic cats and feral cats where Toms will kill young kittens on their rounds if not protected by the mother or owner.
• Preventing this is a good reason for desexing non-breeding males, and trapping and euthanasing all stray Toms.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Desex all males not needed for breeding.
• Try to trap and euthanase all stray and feral Toms.
  

4. Spraying

• Cats spray to mark their territory, their home range and any new area.
• Once they feel safe, they don't spray.
• They are very sensitive to a "general safe smell" of their environment.
• It's when their lair is under threat that they may start again.
• It happens in both sexed or desexed cats.
  

Possible reasons?

• New adult cat or kitten in the house.
• Change of status in group.
• Visiting Tom cats staking out territory (doormats and car wheels).
• New baby in the house.
• Neighbours have got new cats.
• Bereavement in the house - cat's neglected.
• Redecorate and new smells.
• Plastic bags from outside with alien smells brought indoors.
• Doormat with new footwear smells.
• Installation of cat door - outside becomes inside.
• Visitors car (with open windows).
• Protest spraying - to inform owner cat is unhappy.
• Genetics - oriental breeds.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Find the cause of the anxiety - try to remove it.
• Something needs to change - and you need to find out.
  
• Don't punish the cat - or don't be caught doing it.(Try a water pistol).
• Confine cat to safe home area - and slowly expand it.
• Feed it near where it sprays.
• If "protest spray" - rebuild the bond with the cat.
• Drugs from vet
• Rehome the cat with someone in a different environment.

5. Defaecating

• Cats normally bury their faeces. When they don't it's generally deliberate and is called "maddening".
• It's another way for cats to mark territory.
• It happens when cats are in panic mode - e.g. if locked in the house or may do it on the bed when owners are on holiday.
• Kittens that have been poorly trained by the mother in the nest may develop the habit.
• Punishment is not very effective and it must be instantaneous and from afar, so the cat doesn't associate it with you.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Find the cause of the problem and remove it.
• Never rub the cat's nose in the mess. It achieves nothing.
• Build up animal's self esteem.
• Go back to principles of toilet training.
• Feed the cat where it has defaecated
• Rehome the cat with someone in a different environment.

6. Toilet training

• Kittens are taught by their mothers not to soil their den, so use this principle.
• Take the kitten outside on to soil or litter after feeding to encourage elimination.
• Put newspaper down where you feed the kitten and gradually extend this "feeding territory" so it will not eliminate there.
• Shut off areas where it has started soiling and confine it to approved areas.
• Feed the cat where it has eliminated.
• Never rub its nose in the mess.
• Scratching furniture.
• This is partly claw care and has a trimming action.
• It's also scent marking from glands in paws.
• Used to mark territory.
• Done as a dominance gesture, often in presence of other cats.
• Cats get cunning and will do it on the beds to avoid reprimand.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Always be on the watch - think like a cat.
• Keep cats out when you are out.
• Provide a scratching post in house.
• Put it in front of the damaged object.
• Use a reprimand. It must be instant and from a distance (eg water pistol).
• Hitting the cat won't work - don't try it.
  
• Some smell deterrents may work.
  

7. Attacking other cats

• Can vary from the occasional scrap between cats in a household, to serious attacks on all cats on sight - indoors or outdoors.
• This is a natural way to sort out hierarchy and territory.
• May be caused by poor social contact between cats when young
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Keep aggressive cats inside at night.(This will also benefit wildlife).
• Reintroduce new cats into group gradually in protected cage.
• Distraction - bring new cats together at feeding time.
• Neuter all Toms.
• Your vet may recommend hormone treatment for the aggressor.
• Euthanasia could be a final option in New Zealand, but take veterinary advice on this. You may be legally liable for any damage your cat causes.
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

9. Attacking people

• This is a nasty habit and can be scary and dangerous for the uwary (visitors and kids).
  
• This is usually "play aggression" that gets out of hand.
• "Defensive aggression" is caused by poor socialisation.
• It may be encouraged by some family members and then others suffer.
• It may be "fear aggression" so ignore the cat and allow it escape routes.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Know the cat's likes and dislikes - and warn guests.
• Provide toys and encourage the cat to play with them.
• Provide another cat or kitten for it to play with.
• Ignore the cat and don't play with it. Tell others of the plan.
• Experiment with changing diets.
• Don't provide catnip.
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.
• Euthanasia may be considered necessary in New Zealand, as you are legally liable for damage. But talk to your veterinarian first.
  

10. Petting and biting syndrome

• It's where the cat allows so many strokes then gives a controlled bite or nip.
• Three strokes then a bite are typical, or not allowing certain body parts to be touched.
• It is often tolerated by the owner so is not cured.
• May get worse with age - could be physical problems.
• Certain parts of the body are more sensitive than others - the back end.
• It often happens in older cats and gets worse with age.
• Some cats will tolerate adults but not children stroking them.
• Can't do much. Leave the cat alone and warn others, especially children.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Recognise the habit and avoid triggering it.
• Warn guests or remove cat when they arrive.
• But it may make the cat more cunning when biting.
• Talk to vet about drugs.
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

11.Over-grooming and self mutilation

• Cats regularly groom their flanks or backs when they are confused, or when upset after a threat.
• It seems a displacement behaviour resulting from anxiety or stress.
• It can get out of hand and is difficult to stop.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Check for any problems of the skin.
• Protect the affected skin area - cat will probably shift attention to another.
• Check for diet allergies.
• Find the cause of the distress and remove it.
• Provide toys for stimulation.
• Reduce the number of cats in the house.
• Don't punish the cat for other offences - fix those problems first.
• Treat with drugs for anxiety.
• There may be no cure if it becomes serious, but take veterinary advice before considering euthanasia.
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

12. Hair ball

• This is a problem of long-haired breeds that are not regularly groomed.
• This is a very common feature of cats.
• It's not a problem until they come into the house from the garden to be sick.
• Thought to be a means of assisting digestion.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Make sure grooming is adequate and the animal is kept clean.

13.Pica

• This is the eating or sucking of a wide range of non-nutritional items and can cause health problems.
• Sucking and kneading wool items is most common.
• It's thought to be need for dietary fibre, a depraved maternal behaviour snuggling up to dam's belly or natural trait of prey catching/eating.
• It often occurs in cats weaned too young.
• Severe stress can trigger it.
• Poor early socialisation is a likely cause.
• Some breeds are worse than others, eg Siamese.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Provide toys to increase stimulation.
• Check diet for fibre.
• Try aversion tactics - water pistol, or noise.
• Provide favourite fabrics to save others.
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

14. Eating plants

• Thought to be a nutritional deficiency.
• The cat often knocks the plant over and breaks the pot in the process, adding to the problem.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• Remove the problem materials from cat's environment.
• Try different diets
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

15. Thieving

• Cats have an inquisitive nature so this habit can be a self gratifying experience.
• It can be part of pica syndrome - stealing favourite items to eat.
• It's part of the behaviour of bringing kill back to the den for the tribe.
  

Possible cures/prevention

• There is little point in chasing it to get it back - you add to the fun.
• Try to remove the opportunity for the cat to steal things.
• Completely ignore it when it brings items home
• Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

Cats in modern society - the 5th freedom

• Changes are coming in man's relationship with the domestic cat in New Zealand.
• We have a love/hate relationship with cats as we do with dogs, but cats are inherent hunters and it's now being realised the effect their hunting as on our endangered native wildlife - as it has done in Australia.
• The average age of a cat in modern society is 3.5 years. Euthanasia is the main cause of death. Thousands of kittens are euthanased each year.
• Just about every family in NZ has a pet dog or cat and many have both. Cats are more popular than dogs and are easier to get and dispose of (legally or illegally).
• Hundreds of thousands of cats are euthanased each year and Christmas is the peak time for this being the peak kitten season.
• The SPCA struggle to get the message across about desexing and "pets are not just for Christmas".
• There are now plenty of data now to show how much wildlife the average domestic "moggy" cleans up in a year. It is in the region of 20 birds/year.
• DOC in New Zealand are having a big campaign against the cat.
• Some people are very upset about this, blaming owners for irresponsible cat care.
• There is no welfare code for cats but this will be done sometime.
• Australia has brought in rules against cats in some areas where they must now be confined.
  
• "Keep your cat inside at night" will have to be the catch cry for future.
• New Zealand will have to face this in future as public concern and sympathy changes towards our native fauna - the impact of TV is massive. There are changes ahead for the Kiwi moggy with cat-free areas being accepted.
• Desexing feral cats releasing them back into the environment is a crazy idea.
  

Animal behaviour and welfare: Dogs Part 1

DOG BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 1

Origins: Dogs and Society

By Dr Clive Dalton

Origins

• The dog's ancestors evolved 35 million years ago and the modern dog has been traced using DNA in hair samples to a small group of female wolves living in East Asia some 15,000 years ago.
  
• Man developed much later - some 3.5 million years ago and the dog was first on the domestication list. A recent hypothesis is that man and dog evolved together for long periods with man losing his sense of smell as he relied more on the dog.

The wolf pack

• The wolf is a pack animal that hunts and lives communally and wolves have a very clear social hierarchy which was very similar to the human family. So wolves easily slotted into the early human family lifestyle.
• The wolf pack is led by an alpha male and alpha female (order can reverse), and there are constant challenges going on in the pack such as these:
• Young males are always fancying the top job.
• Young males start to work their way up the order to the top.
• Young males dominate young females.
• Changes in order when new adolescents come into family.
• Changes when old members leave or die.
• Females protecting their young.
• Females keeping the top male to herself.

Dog's benefits to early man
It's easy to imagine a stray wolf cub brought home and becoming a family pet followed by breeding and selection for many traits useful to man. For example the domesticated wolf could provide:

• Companionship and entertainment - a play mate for the children.Protection - it would warn of strangers. Selection for barking would take place.
• Hunting - the wolf would assist in the chase, especially appreciated by older humans as their speed was reduced by infirmity.
• Warmth at nights - Eskimos talk of a 2- of 3-dog night.
• Work and power - dogs are willing workers and can carry and pull loads.
• Effluent disposal - the early dog would also keep the house area clean, and eat human effluent.
• Meat and skins when it was slaughtered.
  

Recent DNA analysis

With recent DNA analysis, some scientists make the point that the relationship between humans and dogs makes no evolutionary sense. The DNA analysis now disproves the speculation about how man domesticated the wolf, and that the dog's hunting and herding instincts developed by selection long after domestication.

Then it's now accepted that today's wild dogs did not evolve from the wolf, as they are more social than wolves which were always loners to protect their territories to maintain a food supply. Modern wild dogs don't have the clear hierarchy seen in wolf packs and are much more social with a variety of dominance and submissive relationships. Neither do they have a strict territory like wolves do.

Impact of man on the dog

• Consider the different types of dog we have today. There over 200 breeds ranging in weight from less than 1kg to about 100kg.
  
• The question to consider is - have we've made genetic progress as perhaps some of these dogs (which many veterinarians consider have genetic defects) should have been euthanased and not saved for future breeding, or to form a new breed?
• There is big money to be made if you breed a new genotype - and you have exclusive rights to it. You can use cloning to multiply it so it's maybe time to ask "should there be laws against further genetic change in a "wrong" direction?
  
• Who's opinions do we accept and who needs to take control over what is done.
  

Dog's benefits to modern man

This list seems to get longer each year as people find new challenges for dogs and train them to achieve amazing feats well beyond the ability of man. Here are some examples:

• Farm working dogs handling livestock of a wide range of species. Without them, much land could not be farmed - e.g. New Zealand hill country.
• Used by conservationists to find pest species and feral animals. They can be trained to be very host specific so can find the species being protected for monitoring.
• Trained to locate game, and retrieve it when shot.
• Trained as guards to live with livestock and protect them from predators and thieves.
• Trained as "seeing-eye" dogs for the blind.

• Dogs guarding property that they see as their territory.
• Search and rescue dogs to find people in avalanches and earthquakes.
• To help people with impaired hearing.
• Helping the disabled by pulling wheelchairs and doing simple chores.
• Police dogs used to search for drugs and to find, attack and hold offenders.
• To find people on land and across water –e.g. the Bloodhound and Newfoundland respectively.
• Customs and Biosecurity dogs used to find drugs, fruit, etc.
• Used to find truffles buried under the ground in orchards - traditionally done by pigs.
• Trained to find the sites of old chemical dumps.
• Military dogs to locate landmines and explosives as well as the enemy and snipers.
• Trained to use their acute sense of smell to detect cancer cells and chemicals (ketones) from the nose of patients pre-seizure.
• Companions to young and old.

The dog in modern society

• After seeing the good things dogs do for man, it's important to consider the "problems" they cause in our sophisticated modern (urban) society.
  
• But if you ask an Animal Control Officer about "dog problems" they'll remind you that they rarely see dog problems, - they deal instead with "people problems" as dog owners are the cause.
  

Examples of "dog problems" as man sees them

These dogs bark all day at anything passing by, as their human pack leaders (owners) are at work. From their viewpoint - they're doing a great job, and they also alert all the other dogs in the street to warn them of potential threats.

These dogs bark during the night too to warn their pack leaders of threats. But the owners are either deaf or don't care about neighbours and never stop them barking. The owners originally got two pups to be company for each other when they were out at work - so now they are two bored adult dogs instead of one - along with very annoyed neighbours who can do little about the problem under the law.

• Dogs frightening people -rushing at people and biting them.
• Damage to property when their owners are out at work.
• Barking and annoying neighbours when their owners are away.
• Wandering. Dogs that run away and cause annoyance as they move around.
• Feral dogs living in town and country and threatening people, their pets and livestock.
• Harassing, mauling and killing livestock.
• Reproduction. Producing endless unwanted puppies that are dumped or handed to SPCAs to dispose of.
• Obesity. Grossly overfat dogs and dogs with other dietary problems.
  
• Confusion. Dogs are confused by their owners. It appears as if the dogs think they are human and the humans think they are dogs!
• Hierarchy confusion. The dog is confused about where it stands in the household as the rules are not consistent.
• Faeces in public places which other dogs then add to.
• Territorial aggression - where dogs attack to protect their home range.
• Genetic aggression - dogs bred for aggression that when stimulated savage anything they see as a threat - people, other dogs and livestock.
• Over-stimulated scatty dogs that annoy owners and visitors and can become aggressive.
• Mutilation required by breed standards e.g. tail and ear docking. Also "debarking" dogs by veterinarians for owners who cannot find another solution to their persistent barking dog.
• Problems caused by breed standards that require veterinary treatment - jaws, teeth and birth problems.
• Sexual habits - leg mounting and sniffing people.
• Dogs in the human pack.

Dogs are pack animals
Dogs prefer to live with dogs which is often a surprise to humans! Here are some important points to remember:

• Dogs like clear simple rules that are consistent.
• Dogs understand dogs! Humans can be very confusing.
• Dogs interpret human behaviour in a canine way and humans interpret dog behaviour in a human way.

The human pack from a dog's viewpoint

• Humans change clothes every day.
• Humans are not consistent in the way they smell.
• Humans change moods regularly.
• Humans are inconsistent in what they do each day.
• Different members of the human pack often have different rules.
• Humans can love you one moment and hate you the next.
  
• Humans make a fuss of you to show their love, and then go away and leave you.
• They die, split up and move house and cause confusion. (These are the three greatest man-dog bond breakers.
  

So when human shows inconsistency, then a confused dog is tempted to take the lead to sort things out and regain consistency.

Animal behaviour and welfare: Dogs Part 2

DOG BEHAVIOUR BASICS: PART 2

Dog’s senses: Diet: Communication

By Dr Clive Dalton

Vision

• The position of a dog's eyes on its head varies and this has important implications for its visual perception of things in its environment.
• Generally dogs have 70% more peripheral and 20% narrower binocular vision than humans.
• Hence dogs are more aware of movement at the side of their heads and they need to move their heads more in order to focus.
• Dogs have an ability to see movement 10 times better than humans. We use this in training with hand signals to reinforce voice commands.
• Slight movement of your hand or body can over stimulate a dog - so watch for raised arm that the dog may see as threat.
• Visual discrimination of detail and silhouette is not as good as the human.
• Dogs have poor colour reception and inferior awareness of detail.
• Dogs can clearly differentiate between levels of brightness.
  

Hearing

• Hearing ranges from 20,000 to 50,000 cycles per second (cps). Humans peaks at 20,000 cps. So dogs can hear ultrasound.
  
• As a general rule, dogs' hearing is about four times better than humans so a dog can hear sounds at 25m that man can only hear at 6m.
• There are silent dog whistles used by some handlers. We hear this sound they make as a low hiss.
• Visual clues are useful to indicate to the dog where a sound came from.
• Dogs don't understand English -they hear sounds. So vary the sounds you use to command a dog.
• There is no need to shout at a dog! Use loud sounds for reprimands and soft for approval.
• Dogs respond to a "happy voice" when given with other positive signals.
• Keep auditory signals simple.
  

Smell

• The dog has a highly developed sense of smell - 1000 times better than humans.
• Dogs can smell a fingerprint on glass up to 6 weeks after placement.
• Dogs have a Vomeronasal Organ (VNO) near the hard palate that provides a third chemical sense so it's almost tasting a smell as well as smelling it.
• The dog does not show a Flehmen response like the cat.
• The dogs acute sense of smell is a major cause of "human" problems.
• Smelling bitches on heat at long distances.
• Finding carrion to eat and roll in.
• Smelling strangers as a threat and biting.
• A new theory says the dog's great ability to smell was a reason for "joint evolution". Man lost his sense of smell because the dog as part of his tribe, did the smelling for him.
• Smell is a vitally important part of dog communication when meeting. Dogs greet each other first nose-to-nose (naso-naso).
• Remember the importance of smell when dogs meet humans - hold the back of your hand out to a strange dog to smell.
• The dog's anal glands hold its complete CV. So after the naso-naso greeting, dogs proceed to smell each other's anal region (naso-ano).
  

Touch

• The early life of a dog is one of touch and smell as it is born blind and with poor hearing.
• Hence touch is an enormous bonding feature among dogs and is one of the highest rewards you can give a dog.
• It is the key to bonding with humans during training and you see it with huntaways at dog trials - leaning on their handler for reassurance waiting the start.
• Farm dog trainers don't need a pocket full of treats - they use touch and voice tone to communicate their messages.

Where to touch an unfamiliar dog
The top of the dog - head, scruff, back and tail are all "dominant" areas. It's where other dogs grab in fights. Until you know the dog, touch it on low-down areas.

• Don't grab the scruff.
• Don't pat the top of its head.
• Don't pat its shoulders.
• Don't touch its tail.
• Pat its chest and under its jaw
• Avoid eye contact at the same time.
  

Diet

• Dogs eat only during the day unlike cats that eat both day and night.
• In operant research when dogs were given a free choice of diet, they preferred warm sweet sloppy foods, which is not surprising because after a kill, the wild dog first eats the guts and stomach contents.
• Wild dogs also prefer variety in their diet and are omnivores (eating both animal and plant foods).
• Wild dogs will usually eat every second day so why do many pet dogs eat every time the owner eats leading to obesity? It seems very hard for them to refuse feeding a begging dog.
• What do we give our dogs? We feed dry biscuits from the bag and cold dog roll from the fridge.
• But we must realise that humans purchase dog diets. Research shows we use human standards about what we think will taste nice and be wholesome for the dog.
• Farm dogs have been underfed for generations on frozen mutton and scraps which are deficient in some important B complex vitamins.
• Biscuits are widely promoted for their convenience as a feed and as "complete diet".
• Working dogs are athletes and need high energy diets. Pet dogs do little and many really need starving - but don't suggest that to the owner of an obese pet!
• The principles of nutrition are simple - you feed the dog to meet its nutritional needs.
• Note the difference between "wants and needs", as dogs will only stop eating when they are full. They don't know when their nutritional needs have been met
  

Dog communication

• Being a pack animal, communication is vital for survival and dogs use a very wide range of body and verbal signals to communicate.
• Examples are body posture/tail/eyes/hair/teeth/yawn/trembling
• You will recognise the welcome "smile" when a low ranking dog meets greets you. They turn their upper lip up to expose their teeth.
• The wagging tail is not always a sign of happiness - it shows that the dog is prepared to interact with the stimulus - good or bad.
• Eye contact is important to show dominance. Don't eyeball an aggressive dog.
• Dogs need their tails to give a wide range of signals. So why are some breeds docked and are the human reasons justified?
  
• The Kennel Club approves the docking of 45 breeds of purebred dogs that are customarily docked.
• Smell is vitally important to dogs. But sniffing can get out of hand and become a problem for humans.
• Dogs love rolling in carrion and faeces to send messages to other dogs - and the dogs think their owners as pack members will appreciate it too!
• Remember the importance of the anal gland in indicating the dog's status.
• Territorial scent marking is vitally important in dogs, especially in males to denote territory and warn off strangers.